佛陀的啟示 第二章 第一聖諦：苦諦 Chapter II. The First Noble Truth: Dukkha

The Four Noble Truths

Chapter II. The First Noble Truth: Dukkha

第二章 四聖諦

第一聖諦——苦諦

The heart of the Buddha’s teaching lies in the Four Noble Truths (Cattāri Ariyasaccāni) which he expounded in his very first sermon[1] to his old colleagues, the five ascetics, at Isipatana (modern Sarnath) near Benares. In the sermon, as well have it in the original texts, these four Truths are given briefly. But there are innumerable places in the early Buddhist scriptures where they are explained again and again, with greater detail and in different ways. If we study the Four Noble Truths with the help of these references and explanations, we get fairly good and accurate account of the essential teachings of the Buddha according to the original texts.

在佛陀的教法中，四聖諦可算是其中的心要了。他在波羅奈附近的鹿野苑(今印度沙納特地方)，向他的老同修——五苦行者作第一次說法時﹝注一﹞，所講的就是這個。這次說法的原文尚在，其中只是簡單地敘述了一下四諦。但是在早期的佛典中，有無數的地方，都是反覆闡明四諦的，解釋得很詳細，解釋的方法也不同。如果利用這種資料和注疏來研究四聖諦，便不難根據原典，對佛教的要義，作一個相當完善而正確的闡釋。

The Four Noble Truths are:

四聖諦是：

Dukkha (一)苦諦。(注一) Samudaya, the arising or origin of dukkha (二)集諦：苦之生起或苦之根源。 Nirodha, the cessation of dukkha (三)滅諦：苦之止息。 Magga, the way leading to the cessation of dukkha (四)道諦：導致苦之止息的途徑。

The First Noble Truth: Dukkha

第一聖諦——苦諦

The First Noble Truth (Dukkha-ariyasacca) is generally translated by almost all scholars as ‘The Noble Truth of Suffering’, and it is interpreted to mean that life according to Buddhism is nothing but suffering and pain. Both translation and interpretation are highly unsatisfactory and misleading. It is because of this limited, free and easy translation, and its superficial interpretation, that many people have been misled into regarding Buddhism as pessimistic.

幾乎所有的學者，(在英文著作里)都將第一聖諦譯成『苦難聖諦( The Noble Truth of Suffering)』，並且將它的意義解釋為：『根據佛教，生命除了苦難與哀痛之外，別無他物。』這種翻譯及釋義極難令人滿意，而且易致誤會。就因為這種狹義、粗疏而草率的翻譯，以及膚淺的闡釋，才使得許多人發生錯覺，以為佛教是悲觀的。

First of all, Buddhism is neither pessimistic nor optimistic. If anything at all, it is realistic, for it takes a realistic view of life and of the world. It looks at things objectively (yathābūtam). It does not falsely lull you into living in a fool’s paradise, nor does it frighten and agonize you with all kinds of imaginary fears and sins. It tells you exactly and objectively what you are and what the world around you is, and shows you the way to perfect freedom, peace, tranquillity and happiness.

先說，佛教是既非悲觀的，也非樂觀的。如果一定要說它怎麼樣，毋寧說它是『實觀』的。因為它對人生、對世界的觀點是如實的。它以客觀的眼光看一切事物，既不誑騙你，使你在一個愚人的樂園中，醉生夢死的度過一生；也不以各種虛幻的恐懼與罪惡來恫嚇、折磨你。它只是客觀而正確地告訴你：你是什麼？你周圍的世界又是什麼？並為你指出走向十足自由、和平、寧靜與快樂的途徑。

One physician may gravely exaggerate an illness and give up hope altogether. Another may ignorantly declare that there is no illness and that no treatment is necessary, thus deceiving the patient with a false consolation. You may call the first one pessimistic and the second optimistic. Both are equally dangerous. But a third physician diagnoses the symptoms correctly, understands the cause and the nature of the illness, sees clearly that it can be cured, and courageously administers a course of treatment, thus saving his patient. The Buddha is like the last physician. He is the wise and scientific doctor for the ills of the world (Bhisakka) or Bhaisajya-guru).

有的醫生會過份夸大病情，對它放棄一切希望。有的醫生會愚昧地宣稱根本無病，不需要治療，以虛妄的安慰來欺騙病人。你也許可以叫前者為悲觀的，後者為樂觀的。兩者都是同樣的危險。可是另有一類醫生，卻能把症候診斷得很正確；他了解疾病的原因與性質，很清楚地看到這種病可以治愈，而且果敢地采取治療措施，因而救了病人一命。彿就像這第三類的醫師。他是拯救世間疾患的，有智慧而且合乎科學的科學的醫師(藥師佛)(此藥師佛並非大乘經中之東方淨土藥師佛。——張澄基注)

It is true that the Pali word dukka (or Sanskrit dukka) in ordinary usage means ‘suffering’, ‘pain’, ‘sorrow’ or ‘misery’, as opposed to the word sukha meaning ‘happiness’, ‘comfort’ or ‘ease’. But the term dukkha as the First Noble Truth, which represents the Buddha’s view of life and the world, has a deeper philosophical meaning and connotes enormously wider senses. It is admitted that the term dukkha in the First noble Truth contains, quite obviously, the ordinary meaning of ‘suffering’, but in addition it also includes deeper ideas such as ‘imperfection’, ‘impermanence’, ‘emptiness’, ‘insubstantiality’. It is difficult therefore to find one word to embrace the whole conception of the term dukkha as the First Noble Truth, and so it is better to leave it untranslated, than to give an inadequate and wrong idea of it by conveniently translating it as ‘suffering’ or ‘pain’.

巴利文『苦』Dukkha(梵文作Duhkha)一字，在一般用法上，誠然有『苦難』、『痛苦』、『憂悲』、『苦惱』等意義，而與 Sukha一字之具有『快樂』、『舒適』、『安逸』等意義相反。但用在第一聖諦上時，它代表了佛對人生宇宙的看法，包含有更深的哲學意義，它所詮釋的范疇也大大地擴充了。不可否認的，第一聖諦的『苦』，顯然含有通常的『苦難』意義在內，但是它還包含更深的意念，如『缺陷』、『無常』、『空』、『無實』等。因此，要找一個(英文)字而具有第一聖諦『苦』(Dukkha)的全部概念，是很困難的事。所以，(在英文里)這個字最好不翻，以免輕易將它譯為『苦難』或『痛苦』，反到令人生起不合適而錯誤的意念。

The Buddha does not deny happiness in life when he says there is suffering. On the contrary he admits different forms of happiness, both material and spiritual, for laymen as well as for monks. In the anguttara-nikāya, one of the five original Collections in Pāli containing the Buddha’s discourses, there is a list of happinesses (sukhāni), such as the happiness of family life and the happiness of the life of a recluse, the happiness of sense pleasures and the happiness of attachment and the happiness of detachment, physical happiness and mental happiness etc. [2] But all these are included in dukkha. Even the very pure spiritual states of dhyāna (recueillement or trance) attained by the practice of higher meditation, free from even a shadow of suffering in the accepted sense of the word, states which may be described as unmixed happiness, as well as the state of dhyāna which is free from sensations both pleasant (sukha) and unpleasant (dukkha) and is only pure equanimity and awareness- even these very high spiritual states are included in dukkha. In one of the suttas of the Majjhima- nikāya, (again one of the five original Collections), after praising the spiritual happiness of these dhyānas, the Buddha says that they are ‘impermanent, dukkha, and subject to change’ (aniccā dukkhā viparināmadhammā). [3] Notice that the word dukkha is explicitly used. It is dukkha, not because there is ‘suffering’ in the ordinary sense of the word, but because ‘whatever is impermanent is dukkha’. (yad aniccam tam dukkham).

佛說世間有苦難，並不是否認人生有樂趣。相反的，他承認居士和比丘都可以有各種物質和精神的樂趣。在巴利經藏中，五部原典之一的《增支部經》，就有一張列舉各種快樂的清單。例如：家庭生活之樂、五欲之樂、厭離之樂、染著之樂、色身之樂、心靈之樂等等。﹝注三﹞可是這一切都包含在『苦』中。甚至由修習高級禪定而得的非常純淨的精神狀態，其中了無通常所謂『苦難』的蹤影，可稱是無染的樂受的各種禪定境界，以及不苦不樂只有純粹舍支與一心支的禪定境界，像這種非常高超的精神境界，也都包含在『苦』中。在《中部經》(也是巴利文經藏中五部原典之一)里有一部經，佛先讚歎禪定之樂，後接著說這些喜樂是無常、苦、變易不居的。﹝注四﹞請注意這里明明白白地標出一個『苦』字。這『苦』並不是通常所謂的苦難，而是『無常即是苦』。

The Buddha was realistic and objective. He says, with regard to life and the enjoyment of sense-pleasures, that one should clearly understand three things: (1) attraction or enjoyment (assāda), (2) evil consequence or danger or unsatisfactoriness (ādinava), and (3) freedom or liberation (nissarana). [4] When you see a pleasant, charming and beautiful person, you like him (or her), you are attracted, you enjoy seeing that person again and again, you derive pleasure and satisfaction from that person. This is enjoyment (assāda). It is a fact of experience. But this enjoyment is not permanent, just as that person and all his (or her) attractions are not permanent either. When the situation changes, when you cannot see that person, when you deprived of this enjoyment, you become sad, you may become unreasonable and unbalanced, you may even behave foolishly. This is the evil, unsatisfactory and dangerous side of the picture (ādinava). This, too, is a fact of experience. Now if you have no attachment to the person, if you are completely detached, that is freedom, liberation (nissarana). These three things are true with regard to all enjoyment in life.

佛是真實而客觀的。他說一個人對人生欲樂的享受，有三件事必須了了分明：(一)欲樂的對象與欲樂的享受。(二)欲樂的惡果、危險、以及其它不如意處。(三)從欲樂得解脫。﹝注五﹞當你看見一個愉快迷人而美麗的人兒時，你喜歡他(她)，被他(她)所吸引。你樂于一再見到那人，從那人處得到歡樂與滿足。這就是欲樂的享受，是經驗上的一項事實。但是這種享受不會長久，就和那人以及他(她)所有的吸引力也不長久一樣。情況改變時，你不能再見到那人；失去了這份享受，你就變得憂郁，也可能變得不可理喻而失去心智的平衡。你也許會做出傻事來。這就是(欲樂)惡的、不如意與危險的一面；這也是一項經驗上的事實。可是如果你對那人不貪著，完全抱一種超然的態度，那就是自在、解脫。一切生命中的享受，都不離這三件事。

From it is evident that it is no question of pessimism or optimism, but that we must take account of the pleasures of life as well as of its pain and sorrows, and also freedom from them, in order to understand life completely and objectively. Only then is true liberation possible. Regarding this question the Buddha says:

從這一點上，可以很明顯地看出，這不是一個悲觀或樂觀的問題。要想完全而客觀地去了解人生，不可不計及生活中的樂趣、痛苦憂傷，以及從兩者得解脫的三個不同方面。只有這樣，才可能得到真正的解脫。關于這個問題，佛說：

‘O bhikkhus, if ant recluses or brāhmanas do not understand objectively in this way that the enjoyment of sense-pleasures is enjoyment, that their unsatisfactoriness is unsatisfactoriness, that liberation from them is liberation, then it is not possible that they themselves will certainly understand the desire of sense-pleasures completely, or that they will be able to instruct another person to that end, or that the person following their instruction will completely understand the desire for sense-pleasures. But O bhikkhus, if any recluses or brāhmanas understand objectively in this way that the enjoyment of sense-pleasures is enjoyment, that their unsatisfactoriness is unsatisfactoriness, that liberation from them is liberation, then it is possible that they themselves will certainly understand the desire for sense-pleasures completely, and that they will be able to instruct another person to that end, and that that person following their instruction will completely understand the desire for sense-pleasure.’ [5]

『比丘們啊！任何梵志出家人，如果不能在享受欲樂的時候，以客觀的態度，了了分明這是享受；在欲樂的享受不能如意時，客觀地了知這是不如意的；在從欲樂得解脫時，客觀地了知這是解脫；他們就不可能確實而完全地了解感官享受的欲求。但是，比丘們啊！任何梵志出家人，如果能客觀地了知欲樂的享受為享受、它們的不如意為不如意、從欲樂得解脫為解脫，他們就可能確實而完全地了解感官享受的欲求(之究竟)。他們也就可以以此教導旁人，而受教遵行的人，也就能夠完全了解感官享受的欲求(之究竟)。』﹝注六﹞

The conception of dukkha may be viewed from three aspects (1) dukkha as ordinary suffering (dukkha-dukkha), (2) dukkha as produced by change (viparināma-dukkha) and (3) dukkha as conditioned states (samkhāra-dukkha). [6]

『苦』的觀念可從三方面去審察：

(一)一般苦難的苦(苦苦)。

(二)由變易而生的苦(壞苦)。

(三)由因緣和合(條件具備)而生起的苦(行苦)。﹝注七﹞

All kinds of suffering in life like birth, old age, sickness, death, association with unpleasant persons and conditions, separation from loved ones and pleasant conditions, not getting what one desires, grief, lamentation, distress-all such forms of physical and mental suffering, which are universally accepted as suffering or pain, are included in dukkha as ordinary suffering (dukkha-dukkha).

人生的各種苦難，如生、老、病、死、冤憎會、愛別離、求不得、憂、悲、哀傷．．．．．．凡此種種身心苦楚，為世人所公認苦難或痛苦者，都包括在一般苦難的苦(苦苦)中。

A happy feeling, a happy condition in life, is not permanent, not everlasting. It changes sooner or later. When it changes, it produces pain, suffering, unhappiness. This vicissitude is included in dukkha as suffering produced by change (viparināma-dukkha).

生活中快樂的感覺和快樂的境遇，是無常的、不永恆的、遲早要改變的。它改變的時候，就產生了痛苦、苦惱、不樂。這種變遷都包括在變易的苦(壞苦)中。

It is easy to understand the two forms of suffering (dukkha) mentioned above. No one will dispute them. This aspect of the First Noble Truth is more popular known because it is easy to understand. It is common experience in our daily life.

以上所述兩種苦並不難了解，也不會有人對此持什麼異議。苦諦中這兩方面的苦比較為眾所熟知，因為它們是我們日常生活中的共同經驗，因而容易明白。

But the third form of dukkha as conditioned states (samkhāra-dukkha) is the most important philosophical aspect of the First Noble Truth, and it requires some analytical explanation of what we consider as a ‘being’, as an ‘individual’, or as ‘I’.

但是第三種由因緣和合生起的苦(行苦)，卻是第一聖諦中最重要、最具哲理的一面。要了解它，必須先將我們所認為『眾生』、『個人』及『我』的觀念作一番分析闡釋。

What we call a ‘being’ or an ‘individual’, or ‘I’, according to Buddhist philosophy, is only a combination of ever-changing physical and mental forces or energies, which may be divided into five groups or aggregates (paňcakkhandha). The Buddha says: ‘In short these five aggregates of attachment are dukkha’. [7] Elsewhere he distinctly defines dukkha as the five aggregates: ‘O bhikkhus, what is dukkha? It should be said that it is the five aggregates of attachment’. [8] Here it should be clearly understood that duhhka and five aggregates are not two different things: the five aggregates themselves are dukkha. We will understand this point better when we have some notion of the five aggregates which constitute the so-called ‘being’. Now, what are these five?

根據佛教哲學，所謂『眾生』、『個人』及『我』，只是經常在變動著的物質與精神力量或能力的綜合。這種組合可以分成五類，或稱五蘊。佛說：『簡言之，這五類能執著的組合體(五取蘊)就是苦。』﹝注八﹞在別的經中，他更明白地以五取蘊作為苦的界說。他說：『比丘們啊！什麼是苦呢？應該說它就是五種能執著的組合體(五取蘊)。』﹝注九﹞于此，必須要明白了知的就是：苦與五蘊並不是兩個不同的東西。五蘊本身即是苦。我們對于構成所謂『眾生』的五蘊，稍為有點概念之後，對于這一點當有更進一步的了解。現在且說這五蘊是那些東西。

The Five Aggregates

五蘊

The first is the Aggregates of Matter (Rūpakkhandha). In this term ‘Aggregates of Matter’ are included the traditional Four Great Elements (cattāri mahābbūtāni), namely, solidity, fluidity, heat and motion, and also the Derivatives (upādāya- rūpa) of the Four Great Elements. [9] In the term ‘Derivatives of Four Great Elements’ are included our five material sense-organs, i.e., the faculties of eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body, and their corresponding objects in the external world, i.e., visible form, sound, odour, taste, and tangible things, and also some thoughts or ideas or conceptions which are in the sphere of mind-objects (dharmāyatana). [10] Thus the whole realm of matter, both internal and external, is included in the Aggregate of Matter.

第一是物質的組合之類——色蘊。 在這色蘊之中，包括有傳統的四大種性，就是堅性(地)、濕性(水)、暖性(火)與動性(風)，以及四大的衍生物。﹝注十﹞這些衍生物包括我們的五種感覺器官(根)，也就是眼、耳、鼻、舌、身，以及在外境中與它們相應的對象(塵)，也就是色、聲、香、味、觸等。尚有某種思想、意念或觀念為我們精神活動的對象者(法塵)。﹝注十一﹞因此，色蘊包括了整個物質的領域，在內和在外的都算。

The second is the Aggregate of Sensations (Vedanākkhandha). In this group are included all our sensations, pleasant or unpleasant or neutral, experienced through the contact of physical and mental organs with the external world. They are of six kinds: the sensations experienced through the contact of the eye with visible forms, ear with sounds, nose with odour, tongue with taste, body with tangible objects, and mind (which is the sixth faculty in Buddhist Philosophy) with mind-objects or thoughts or idea. [11] All our physical and mental sensations are included in this group.

第二是感覺組合之類——受蘊。 這一蘊包括我們身心器官與外界接觸到的所有感覺：愉快的、不愉快的，以及既非愉快又非不愉快——中性——的。這些感覺可分六種：由眼根與色塵相接而生的感覺；耳根與聲塵、鼻根與香塵、舌根與味塵、身根與觸塵、意根(佛教哲學中的第六識)與法塵(思想與意念)﹝注十二﹞等相接而生的感覺。也就是說，我們身心的一切感受，都包括在此蘊之中。

A word about what is meant by the term 「Mind’ (manas) in Buddhist philosophy may be useful here. It should clearly be understood that mind is not spirit as opposed to matter. It should always be remembered that Buddhism does not recognize a spirit opposed to matter, as is accepted by most other systems of philosophies and religions. Mind is only a faculty or organ (indriya) like the eye or the ear. It can be controlled and developed like any other faculty, and the Buddha speaks quite often of the value of controlling and disciplining these six faculties. The difference between the eye and the mind as faculties is that the former senses the world of colours and visible forms, while the latter senses the world of ideas and thoughts and mental objects. We experience different fields of the world with different senses. We cannot hear colours, but we can see them. Nor can we see sounds, but we can hear them. Thus with our five physical sense-organs-eye, ear, nose, tongue, body-we experience only the world of visible forms, sound, odours, tastes and tangible objects. But these represent only a part of the world, not the whole. What of ideas and thoughts? They are also a part of the world. But they cannot be sensed, they cannot be conceived by the faulty of the eye, ear, nose, tongue or body. Yet they can be conceived by another faculty, which is mind. Now ideas and thoughts are not independent of the world experienced by these five physical sense faculties. In fact they depend on, and are conditioned by, physical experiences. Hence a person born blind cannot have ideas of colour, except through the analogy of sounds or some other things experienced through his other faculties. Ideas and thoughts which form a part of the world are thus produced and conditioned by physical experiences and are conceived by the mind. Hence mind (manas) is considered a sense faculty or organ (indriya), like the eye or the ear.

在這里，對于佛教哲學中『意』之一字的涵義，似有略作解釋的必要。『意』並不是與物質相對的精神，這一點務必要弄清楚。佛教不承認有與物質相對立的精神，像別的宗教與哲學體系中所承認者。這一點尤須牢記在心。『意』只不過是一個器官或官能，與眼耳一般。它像別的官能一樣，可以予以控制及發展。佛就常常控制及鍛鍊六種官能的價值。眼的官能與『意』的官能之不同處，在于前者所感覺的是顏色及形態的世界，而後者所感覺的則是各種意象、思想等心靈活動的對象(心所有法)的世界。我們以不同感官，感受世間不同領域的事物。我們不能聽見但是可以看得見顏色。我們也不能看見但是可以聽見聲音。以我們的五官——眼、耳、鼻、舌、身，我們只能經驗有色、有聲、有香、有味和可以捉摸的世界。但這些僅是世界的一部份而不是全體。意念和思想怎麼樣呢？它們也是世界的一部份，但是它們不能用眼、耳、鼻、舌、身等官能來察覺，只能用另一種官能——『意根』來體會。意念與思想，並不是與其它五種肉體官能所能經驗到的世界無關。事實上，它們是建立于色身經驗之上，而依之為移轉的。因此，生來盲目的人，不可能有色彩的意念，僅能靠聲音或其它感官所經驗到的事物作譬，而得到某種程度的色的概念。所以，構成一部份世界的意念和思想，雖在意根內形成，它們卻是由色身的經驗所產生，而受其限制。因此，意根也被認為是一個感覺的器官或官能，和眼根、耳根一樣。

The third is the Aggregate of Perceptions (Saňňākkhandha). Like sensations, perceptions also are of six kinds, in relation to six internal faculties and the corresponding six external objects. Like sensations, they are produced through the contact of our six faculties with the external world. It is the perceptions that recognize objects whether physical or mental. [12]

第三是識別組合之類——想蘊。 與受蘊一樣，想蘊也有六種，與在內的六根和在外的六塵相關聯。它們也和受蘊一樣，是由六根與外境相接而生起的。它的功能就在認識與辨別各種身心活動的對象。﹝注十三﹞

The fourth is the Aggregate of Mental Formations [13] (Samkhārakkhandha). In this group are included all volitional activities both good and bad. What is generally known as karma (or kamma) comes under this group. The Buddha’s own definition of karma should be remembered here: ’O bhikkhus, it is volition (cetanā) that I call karma. Having willed, one acts through body, speech and mind. [14] Volition is ‘mental construction, mental activity. Its function is to direct the mind in the sphere of good, bad or neutral activities.’ [15] Just like sensations and perceptions, volition is of six kinds, connected with the six internal faculties and the corresponding six objects (both physical and mental) in the external world. [16] Sensations and perceptions are not volitional actions. They do not produce karmic effects. It is only volitional actions- such as attention (manasikāra), will (chanda), determination (adhimokkha), confidence (saddhā), concentrate (samādhi), wisdom (paňňā), energy (viriya), desire (rāga), repugnance or hate (patigha, Ignorance (avijjā), conceit (māna), idea of self (sakkāya-ditthi) etc. – that can produce karmic effects. There are 52 such mental activities which constitute the Aggregate of Mental Formations.

第四是心所組合之類——行蘊。﹝注十四﹞ 這一類包括了所有善的與惡的意志活動。一般所謂的『業』，也屬于這一蘊。佛親自為業所立的界說，應該牢記不忘：『比丘們啊！我叫作業的就是意志(思)。先有了決意，才經由身、口、意發為行動。』﹝注十五﹞思(Volition)就是『心的造作、心志的活動。它的功能，就是指揮心智以從事善、惡、無記等活動』。﹝注十六﹞和受、想二蘊一樣，行蘊也有六種，內與六根、外與六塵相聯接。﹝注十七﹞可是，受與想不是意志的活動，不能產生業果。只有意志的活動如作意、欲、勝解、信、定、慧、精進、貪、嗔、無明、慢、身見等，才能產生業果。在行蘊中，像這樣的心志活動(心所有法)，共有五十二種。

The fifth is the Aggregate of Consciousness (Viňňānakkhandha). [17] Consciousness is a reaction or response which has one of the six faculties (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind) as its basis, and one of the six corresponding external phenomena (visible form, sound, odour, taste, tangible things and mind-objects, i.e., an idea or thought) as its objects. For instance, visual consciousness (cakkhu-viňňāna) has the eye as its basis and a visible form as its object. Mental consciousness (mano- viňňāna) has the mind (manas) as its basis and a mental object, i.e., an idea or thought (dhamma) as its objects. So consciousness is connected with other faculties. Thus, like sensation, perception and volition, consciousness also is of six kinds, in relation to six internal faculties and corresponding six external objects. [18]

第五是知覺組合之類——識蘊。﹝注十八﹞ 知覺(識)是以六根(眼、耳、鼻、舌、身、意)之一為基本，以及和它相應的六塵(色、聲、香、味、觸、法)之一為對象而生的反應。例如，眼識即以眼根為基本，而以可見的形態為對象而生起。意識(末那)是以意根為基本，而以心所有法(即意念、思想等)為對象而生起。所以，識也與其它官能有關聯。和受、想、行三蘊一樣，識也分六種，與內六根和外六塵相攸關。﹝注十九﹞

It should be clearly understood that consciousness does not regconize an object. It is only a sort of awareness-awareness of the presence of an object. When the eye comes in contact with a colour, for instance blue, visual consciousness arises which simply is a awareness of the presence of a colour; but it does not recognize that it is blue. There is no recognition at this stage. It is perception (the third Aggregate discussed above) that recognizes that it is blue. The term 「visual consciousness’ is a philosophical expression denoting the same idea as is conveyed by the ordinary word ‘seeing’. Seeing does not mean recognizing. So are the other forms of consciousness.

識並不能辨認事物，這點必須明白了解。它只是一種知覺，對于某一事物的存在的察覺。眼睛接觸一種顏色，比方說藍色的時候，眼識即行生起。但它只是察覺到有一種顏色存在，並不認識它是藍色。﹝注二十﹞在這階段，尚沒有認識。認出它是藍色的，是想蘊(前面討論過的第三蘊)。『眼識』是一個哲學名詞。它所表詮的意念，與普通『看』字所表達的一樣。看的意思，並不就是認識。(譯者按：所謂視而不見也)。其它各識，亦復如是。

It must be repeated here that according to Buddhist philosophy there is no permanent, unchanging spirit which can be considered ‘Self’, or ‘Soul’, or ‘Ego’, as apposed to matter, and that consciousness (viňňāna) should not be taken as ‘spirit’ in opposition to matter. This point has to be particularly emphasized, because a wrong notion consciousness is a sort of Self or Soul that continues as a permanent substance through life, has persisted from the earliest time to the present day.

在這里必須重覆說明的就是：根據佛教哲學，世間並無永恆不變而與物質對立的精神，可以被視為『自我』、『靈魂』或『個我』者。『識』也不可以視之為與物質對立的精神。這一點必須特別強調，因為有一種錯誤的觀念，以為『識』是一種『自我』或『靈魂』，在一人一生中為持續不變的實質。這種觀念，自最早的時候起直到如今，始終為人所固執不舍。

One of the Buddha’s own disciples, Sāti by name, held that the Master taught: ‘It is the same consciousness that transmigrates and wanders about.’ The Buddha asked him what he meant by ‘consciousness’. Sāti reply is classical: ‘It is that which expresses, which feels, which experiences the results of good and bad deeds here and there’.

‘To whomever, you stupid one’, remonstrated the Master, ‘have you heard me expounding the doctrines in this manner? Haven’t I in many ways explained consciousness as arising out of conditions: that there is n arising of consciousness without conditions’. Then the Buddha went on to explain consciousness in detail: ‘Consciousness is named according to whatever condition through which it arises: on account of the eye and visible forms arises a consciousness, and it is called visual consciousness; on account of the ear and sounds arises a consciousness, and it is called auditory consciousness; on account of the nose and odours arises consciousness, and it is called olfactory consciousness; on account of the tongue and tastes arises a consciousness, and it is called gustatory consciousness; on account of the body and tangible objects arises a consciousness, and it is called tactile consciousness; on account of the mind and mind-objects (ideas and thoughts) arises a consciousness, and it is called mental consciousness.’

佛的弟子中有一個叫做嗏帝的，聲稱世尊曾教他：『輪轉飄泊的，乃是同一不變的識。』佛問他，他所謂的識是指什麼？嗏帝給佛的是一個典型的答案：『它就是那個能夠表現、能夠感覺，而且能夠隨處承受一切善惡業報的東西。』世尊就訓誡他說：『你這愚蠢的人啊！你聽見過我對誰這樣說法呀？我沒有用種種方法解釋識蘊是由因緣和合而生，如無因緣和合則不能生起嗎？』接著佛就詳細為他解釋識蘊：『識是從使它生起的因緣得名。因眼根與色塵相接而生起的識，就叫做眼識；因耳根與聲塵相接而生的識，就叫做耳識；因鼻根與香塵相接而生起的識，就叫做鼻識；因舌根與味塵相接而生起的識，就叫做味識；因身根與觸塵相接而生起的識，就叫做身識；因意根與法塵(意念與思想)相接而生起的識，就叫做意識。』

Then the Buddha explained it further by an illustration: A fire is named according to the material on account of which it burns. A fire may burn on account of wood, add it is called wood-fire. It may burn on account of straw, and then it is called straw-fire. So consciousness is named account to the condition through which it arises. [19]

接著，佛更進一步以譬喻作解釋：『火每從所燒的燃料得名，因木柴而燃燒的火叫做柴火，因稻草而燃燒的火叫做稻草火。所以，識也是從使它生起的因緣得名。』﹝注二十一﹞

Dwelling on this point, Buddhaghosa, the great commentator, explain: ‘… a fire burns on account of wood burns only when there is a supply, but dies down in that very place when it (the supply) is no longer there, because then the condition has changed, but (the fire) does not cross over to splinters, etc., and become a splinter-fire and so on; even so the consciousness that arise on account of the eye and visible forms arises in that gate of sense organ (i.e., in the eye), only where there is the condition of the eye, visible forms, light and attentions, but ceases then and there when it (the condition) is no more there, because then the condition has changed, but (the consciousness) does not cross over to the ear, etc, and become auditory consciousness and so on …’ [20]

大注疏家覺音在詳論這一點時，解釋道：『因木柴燃燒的火，只有在木材供應不斷時才燃燒。供應斷絕時，即就地熄滅，因為造成燃燒的條件(因緣)改變了。但是火並不跳到木屑等上去，而變成木屑火等。同樣的，因眼根與色塵相接而生起的眼識，只生在眼根門頭； 而且只在眼根、色塵、光與作意(注意)四緣具備的時候才生起。一旦因緣消散，其識即時就地止息，因為條件改變了。但是這識並不跳到耳根等處去，而變成耳識等等······。』﹝注二十二﹞

The Buddha declared in unequivocal terms that consciousness depends on matter, sensation, perception and mental formations and that it cannot exist independently of them. He says:

佛曾經毫不含糊地宣稱識蘊是依色、受、想、行四蘊而生起，不能離此四蘊而獨存。他說：

’Consciousness may exist having matter as its means (rūpupāyam), matter as its object (rūpārammanani), matter as its support (rūpa-patittham), and seeking delight it may grow, increase and develop; or consciousness may exist having sensation as its means… or perception as its means… or mental as its means, mental formations as its objects, mental formations as its support, and seeking delight it may grow, increase and develop.

『識可以以色為方便、以色為對象、以色為給養而存在，並且為樂此不疲故，它可以生長、增進、發展。識也可以以受為方便······而存在，以想為方便······而存在；以行為方便、以行為對象、以行為給養而存在，並且為樂此不疲故，它可以生長、增進、發展。

‘Were a man to say: I shall show the coming, the going, the passing away, the arising, the growth, the increase or the development of consciousness apart from matter, sensation, perception and mental formations, he would be speaking of something that does not exist.’ [21]

『如有人說：我可以顯示識的來、去、消逝、生起、成長、增進、發展，而與色、受、想、行無關，那他所說的東西根本就不存在。』﹝注二十三﹞

Very brief these are the five Aggregates. What we call a ‘being’, or an ‘individual’, or, ‘I’, is only a convenient name or a label given to the combination of these five groups. They are all impermanent, all constantly changing. ‘Whatever is impermanent is dukkha’ (Yad aniccam tam dukkham). This is true meaning of the Buddha’s words: ‘In brief the five Aggregates of Attachment are dukkha’. They are not the same for two consecutive moments. Here A is not equal to A. They are in a flux of momentary arising and disappearing.

很簡單地說，這些就是五蘊。我們叫做『眾生』、『個人』或『我』的，只是為這五蘊的綜合體所取的一個方便的名字或標籤而已。這五蘊都是無常的、不停地變遷著的。『凡是無常的，即是苦。』這就是佛說：『簡單地說，五取蘊即是苦』的真實義蘊。從一剎那到相接的另一剎那，它們(五蘊綜合體的成份——譯者注)就不再相同。在這種關系里，甲並不等于甲。它們是一股剎那的生滅之流。

‘O Brāhmana, it is just like a mountain river, flowing far and swift, taking everything along with it; there is no matter, no instant no second when it stops flowing, but it goes on flowing and continuing. So Brāhmana, is human life, like a mountain river.’ [22]

『梵志們啊！就好像一道山洪，源遠流長而波濤湍急，把一切都沖走。它沒有一刻一分一秒的停留，只是不斷地流、流、流。梵志們啊！人生就像這山洪一般。』﹝注二十四﹞

As the Buddha told Ratthapāla: ‘The world is in continuous flux and is impermanent.’

佛這樣地告訴羅吒波羅：『世間遷流不息，無有恆常。』

One thing disappears, conditioning the appearance of the next in a series of cause and effect. There is no unchanging substance in them. There is nothing behind them that can be called a permanent Self (Ātman), individuality, or anything that can in reality be called ‘I’. Every one will agree that neither matter, nor sensation, nor perception, nor any one of those mental activities, nor consciousness can really be called ‘I’. [23] But when these five physical and mental aggregates which are interdependent are working together in combination as a physio-psychological machine, [24] we get the idea of ‘I’. But this is only a false idea, a mental formation, which is nothing but one of those 52 mental formations of the fourth Aggregate which we have just discussed, namely, it is the idea of self (sakkāya-ditthi).

在一連串的因果關系中，一件事物的消逝，就構成另一件事物生起的條件。其中，並沒有不變的實體。它們的幕後，並沒有可以叫做『永恆的自我(神我)』、『個性』或真正可以叫做『我』的東西。大家都會同意，無論是色蘊、受蘊、想蘊、行蘊或識蘊中任何一法，都不能被認為是真正的『我』。﹝注二十五﹞但是這五種精神與肉體的『蘊』，本來是相互依存的。在它們聯合活動的時候，就成為一架身心合一的機器﹝注二十六﹞，因而產生了『我』的意念。但這是一個虛妄的意念，只是一種心所有法，也就是前文剛談過的五十二種心所法之一的身見——薩迦耶見。

These five Aggregate together, which we popularly call a ‘being’ are dukkha itself (samkhāra-dukkha). There is no other ‘being’ or ‘I’, standing behind these five aggregates, who experiences dukkha. As Buddhaghosa says:

這五蘊和合之身，通俗稱為『眾生』之物，就是『苦』的本身。在五蘊的幕後，再沒有其它的『眾生』和『我』在那里承當這『苦』。就如覺音所說的：

‘Mere suffering exists, but no suffering is found; The deeds are, but no doer is found.’ [25]

『僅有苦難存在，卻找不到受苦者。

事蹟是有的，卻找不到行事之人。』﹝注二十七﹞

There is no unmoving mover behind the movement. It is only movement. It is not correct to say that life is moving, but life is movement itself. Life and movement are not two different things. In other words, there is no thinker behind the thought. Thought itself is the thinker. If you move the thought, there is no thinker to be found. Here we cannot fail to notice how this Buddhist view is diametrically opposed to the Cartesian cogito ergo sum: ‘I think, therefore I am.’

在活動的後面，並沒有不動的推動者，只有活動本身。所以，講『生命是活動的』這句話是不對的。應當說生命就是活動本身。生命與活動並不是兩樣不同的東西。推言之，思想的幕也沒有思想者。思想本身就是思想者。除掉了思想，就再找不到思想者。于此，我們不能不注意到，佛教的這一觀點，與笛卡兒的『我思故我在』是何其相反。

Now a question may be raised whether life has a beginning. According to the Buddha’s teaching the beginning of the life-stream of living beings is unthinkable. The believer in the creation of life by God may be astonished at this reply. But if you were to ask him ‘What is the beginning of God?’ he would answer without hesitation ‘God has no beginning’, and he is not astonished at his own reply. The Buddha says: ‘O bhikkhus, this cycle of continuity (samsāra) is without a visible end, and the first beginning of beings wandering and running round, enveloped in ignorance (avijjā) and bound down by the fetters of thirst (desire, tamhā) is not to be perceived.’ [26] And further, referring to ignorance which is the main cause if the continuity of life the Buddha states: ‘The first beginning of ignorance (avijjā) is not to be perceived in such a way as to postulate that there was no ignorance beyond a certain points.’ [27] Thus it is not possible to say that there was no life beyond a certain definite point.

現在可以提出『生命有沒有起源』的問題了。根據佛的教旨，生命之流的起源，是不可想像的。相信上帝創造生命的人，也許會對這答案感到詫異。但是，如果你問他：『什麼是上帝的起源？』他會毫不猶豫地答覆：『上帝沒有起源。』而且不會對他自己的答案感覺奇怪。佛說：『比丘們啊！這相續不斷的輪迴，沒有可見的終點。也不見有眾生受無明所矇蔽、被貪愛的桎梏所羈絆、在生死中飄泊輪轉的開端。』﹝注二十八﹞談到生死相續的主因——無明的時候，佛說：『無明的起源不可見，不可假定在某一點之前沒有無明。』﹝注二十九﹞因此，也不可能說在某一個確定的起點之前，世間沒有生命。

This in short is the meaning of the Noble Truth of Dukkha. It is extremely important to understand this First Noble Truth clearly because, as the Buddha says, ‘he who sees dukkha sees also the arising of dukkha, sees also the cessation of dukkha, and sees also the path leading to the cessation of dukkha.’ [28]

簡短地說，這就是苦的聖諦意義。明白了解這第一聖諦，是極為重要的。因為佛說：『凡是真正見到苦的，也必見到苦的生起，也必見到苦的止息，也必見到導致苦的止息之道。』﹝注三十﹞

This does not at all make the life of a Buddhist melancholy or sorrowful, as some people wrongly imagine. On the contrary, a true Buddhist is the happiest of beings. He has no fears or anxieties. He is always calm and serene, and cannot be upset or dismayed by changes or calamities, because he sees things as they are. The Buddha was never melancholy or gloomy. He was described by his contemporaries as ‘ever-smiling’ (mihitapubbamgama). In Buddhist painting and sculpture the Buddha is always represented with a countenance happy, serene, contented and compassionate. Never a trace of suffering or agony or pain is to be seen. [29] Buddhist art and architecture, Buddhist temples never give the impression of gloom or sorrow, but produce an atmosphere of calm and serene joy.

有些人以為這將使得佛教徒的生活憂郁而悲哀。這是錯誤的想像。其實絲毫不然。相反的，真正的佛教徒，是個最開心不過的人。他既無畏怖，也沒有煩愁。他是寧靜安詳，不為災變所惱亂沮喪，因為他能如實洞見一切事物。從不抑郁不樂。與佛同時的人，將他描述為『經常微笑著。』在佛教的繪畫與塑像里，佛的容顏，永遠是快樂、寧靜、滿足而慈悲的，決看不到有一絲受難或痛苦的痕跡。﹝注三十一﹞佛教藝術和建築，佛教的寺院，從來不曾予人以陰森苦惱的印象，只有產生寧靜安詳的喜悅氣氛。

Although there is suffering in life, a Buddhist should not be gloomy over it, should not be angry or impatient at it. One of the principal evils in life, according to Buddhism, is ‘repugnance’ or hatred. Repugnance (pratigha) is explained as ‘ill-will with regard to living beings, with regard to suffering and with regard to things pertaining to suffering. Its function is to produce a basis for unhappy states and bad conduct.’ [30] Thus it is wrong to be impatient at suffering. Being impatient or angry at suffering does not remove it. On the contrary, it adds a little more to one’s trouble, and aggravates and exacerbates a situation already disagreeable. What is necessary is not anger or impatience, but the understanding of the question of suffering, how it comes about, and how to get rid of it, and then to work accordingly with patience, intelligence, determination and energy.

雖然世間有苦難，佛教徒卻不該因之而郁郁寡歡，也不應為它生嗔而失去耐性。照佛教的說法，嗔或恨是人生首惡之一。嗔是『對眾生、苦難或與苦難有關的事物起不善欲。』它的功能，是為不快的心境及不良的行為奠下基礎。﹝注三十二﹞因此，不能忍受苦難是錯的。對苦難不耐煩或生恨，並不能蠲除苦難。反之，它只有更替你增加困擾，而使得不順利的逆境更趨惡化與可惱。對苦難問題必須要有了解，不該對它憤怒不耐。要明白它如何生起？如何消除？然後以堅忍、睿智、決心與精進依法實行，以袪除它。

There are two ancient Buddhist texts called the Therigāthā which are full of the joyful utterances of the Buddha’s disciples, both male and female, who found peace and happiness in life through his teaching. The king of Kosala once told the Buddha that unlike many a disciple of other religious systems who looked haggard, coarse, pale, emaciated and unprepossessing, his disciples were ‘joyful and elated (hattha-pahattha), jubilant and exultant (udaggudagga), enjoying the spiritual life (abhiratarūpa), with faculties pleased (pinitindriya), free from anxiety (appossukka) serene (pannaloma), peaceful (paradavutta) and living with a gazelle’s mind (migabhūtena cetasā), i.e., light-hearted.’ The king added that he believed that this healthy disposition was due to the fact that ‘these venerable ones had certainly realized the great and full significance of the Blessed One’s teaching.’ [31]

有兩部古老的佛典叫做《長老歌》與《長老尼歌》，其中充滿了男女佛弟子的快樂心聲；他們在佛的教誡中，找到了人生的平安與快樂。憍薩羅國的國王，有一次告訴佛說，佛的弟子們全不像其它宗教的信徒那樣形容枯槁、粗劣蒼白、消瘦孱弱、神情猥瑣。佛的弟子們『歡欣鼓舞、意志昂揚、諸根怡悅、無所憂怖、寧靜和平、心情愉快一如瞪羚，享受著精神生活的快樂。』國王又說，他相信這種健全的氣質是因為『這些可敬的人，一定都已親身證道世尊所說法的重大而圓滿的意義。』﹝注三十三﹞

Buddhism is quite opposed to be melancholic, sorrowful, penitent and gloomy attitude of mind which is considered a hindrance to the realization of Truth. On the other hand, it is interesting to remember here that joy (piti) is one of the seven be cultivated for the realization of Nirvānā. [32]

佛教最反對愁慘、苦惱、悔罪、郁悶等心理狀態，認為這些都是體證真理的障礙。在另一方面，尤須記得『喜』是七覺支之一，為證見涅槃所必須培養的一種主要德性。﹝注三十四﹞

[1] Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta ‘Setting in Motion the Wheel of Truth’. Mhvg. (Alutgama, 1922), p. 9 ff; S V (PTS). P. 420 ff.

[2] A (Colombo, 1929), p. 49

[3] Mahãdukkhakkhandha-sutta, M I (PTS), p. 90.

[4] M I (PTS), p. 85 ff; S III (PTS), p. 27 ff.

[5] M I (PTS), p. 87.

[6] Vism (PTS), P. 499; Abhisamuc, p. 38.

[7] Samkhittena pancupādānakkhandhā dukkhā. S V (PTS), p. 421

[8] S III (PTS), p. 158

[9] S III (PTS),p. 59

[10] Abhisamuc, p. 4. Vibh.p.72. Hhs. p. 133§594

[11] S III (PTS), p. 59.

[12] S III (PTS), p.60

[13] Mental Formations’ is the term now generally used to represent the wide meaning of the word samkhāra in the list of Five Aggregates. Samkhāra in other contexts may mean anything conditioned, anything in the word, in which sense all the Five Aggregates are samkhāra.

[14] A (Colombo, 1929), p. 590- Cetanā’ham bhikkhave kammam vadāmi. Cetayitvā kammam karoti kāyena vācā manasā.

[15] Abhisamuc, p.6.

[16] S III (PTS), p.60.

[17] According to Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy the Aggregate of Consciousness has three aspects: citta, manas and vijňāna, and the Ālaya- vijňāna (popularly translated as ‘Store-Consciousness’) finds its place in this Aggregate. A detailed and comparative study of this subject will be found in a forthcoming work on Buddhist philosophy by the present writer.

[18] S III (PTS), p.61

[19] Mahātanhāsamkhaya-sutta, M I (PTS), p. 256 ff.

[20] MA II (PTS), pp. 306-307

[21] S III (PTS), p. 58.

[22] A (colomo, 1929), p. 700. These words are attributed by the Buddha to a Teacher (Satthā) named Araka who was free from desires and who lived in the dim past. It is interesting to remember here the doctrine of Heraclitus (about 500 B.C) that everything is in a state of flux, and his famous statement: ‘You cannot step twice onto the same river, for fresh waters are ever flowing in upon you.’

[23] The doctrine of Anatta ‘No-Self’ will be discussed in Chapter VI.

[24] In fact Buddhaghosa compares a ‘being’ to a wooden mechanism (dāruyanta). Vism. (PTS), pp. 594-595

[25] Vism. (PTS), p.513

[26] S II (PTS), pp. 178-179; III pp.149, 151

[27] A V (PTS), p. 113

[28] S V (PTS), p. 437. In fact the Buddha says that he who sees any one of the Four Noble Truths sees the other three as well. These Four Noble Truths are interconnected.

[29] There is a statue from Gandhara, and also one from Fou-Kien, China, depicting Gotama as an ascetic, emaciated, with all his ribs showing. But this was before his Enlightenment, when he was submitting himself to the rigorous ascetic practices which he condemned after he became Buddha.

[30] Abhisamuc, p. 7.

[31] M II (PTS), p. 121

[32] For these Seven Factors of Enlightenment see Chapter on Meditation, p. 75.

注釋：

一：見一九二二年阿陸葛馬(Alutgama)版律藏《大品轉法輪經》第九頁以次各頁；巴利文學會版《雜部經》第五集第四二零頁以次各頁。

二：此處巴利原文Dukkha一字在英文原著並未譯成英文，理由見下文。

三：見一九二九年哥崙坡版《增支部經》第四十九頁。

四：見巴利文學會版《中部經》第五集第九十頁大涅槃經。

五：見巴利文學會版《中部經》第一集第八十五頁以次各頁及同版《雜部經》第三集第廿七頁以次各頁。

六：見巴利文學會版《中部經》第一集第八十七頁。

七：見巴利文學會版《清淨道論》第四九九頁及《阿毗達摩集論》(一九五零年山提尼克坦版)第三十八頁。

八：見巴利文學會版《雜部經》第五集第四二一頁。

九：見巴利文學會版《雜部經》第三集第一五八頁。

十：見同書第三集第五十九頁。

十一：見《阿毗達摩集論》第四頁。

十二：見巴利文學會版《雜部經》第三集第五十九頁。

十三：見巴利文學會版《雜部經》第三集第六十頁。﹝想蘊(Sanjna， Pali Sanna)不僅是perception而且是conception概念及意念，所以不能說只有六種，著者太著重perception之義，故有此曲解，本人殊不同意。編者張澄基識﹞﹞又：《阿毗達摩集論》，無著造，大正藏一六零五，六六四頁及安慧造，大正藏一六零六，六九五頁，皆由六根、六塵中說明想蘊並不是只限于此六種，想蘊就是思想及概念。張澄基識。

十四：『心所』一詞現常用以代表五蘊中意義甚廣的『行』字。『行』字在其它行文中之意義，幾可代表任何有為法，任何世間之物，乃至五蘊，無不是『行』。

十五：見一九二九年哥崙坡版《增支部經》第五九零頁。

十六：見《阿毗達摩集論》第六頁。

十七：見巴利文學會版《雜部經》第三集第六十頁。(此處著者亦犯與前面一般的錯誤，見注十三，編者張澄基識。)

十八：根據大乘佛教哲學，識蘊分心、意、識三義。阿賴耶識(通常譯作藏識)即在此蘊中。本書著者現正從事寫作一部佛教哲學之專著，不久即將出版。其中對此課題將有詳盡之比較研究。

十九：見巴利文學會版《雜部經》第三集第六十一頁。

二十：如果眼識只察覺到顏色，而不知是藍的，那麼此處所謂的顏色究竟是什麼意義呢？沒有紅、黃、藍······的顏色，究竟是什麼顏色呢？張澄基識。

二十一：見巴利文學會版《中部經》第一集第二五六頁起 Mahatanhasamkhaya Sutta(譯者注：約相當于漢譯《中阿含》二零一嗏帝經。)

二十二：見巴利文學會版《中部經》覺音疏第二集第三零六至三零七頁。

二十三：見巴利文學會版《雜部經》第三集第五十八頁。

二十四：見一九二九哥崙坡版《增支部經》第七零零頁。佛稱此語乃他多生以前的一位師尊叫做阿邏伽的無欲仙人所說。尚憶西元前五世紀頃之希臘哲人赫拉克利脫氏Heraclitus也曾創一切皆遷流不息之說。他的名言是：『你不可能兩次伸足入同一河流，因為新的水在不斷流向你處。』

二十五：無我的教義在第六章內再行詳論。

二十六：事實上，覺音曾將『生靈』比擬為一木制機器。見巴利文學會版《清淨道論》第五九四至五九五頁。

二十七：見巴利文學會版《清淨道論》第五一三頁。

二十八：見巴利文學會版《雜部經》第三集一七八頁至一七九頁，及一四九頁至一五一頁。

二十九：見同版《增支部經》第五集第一一三頁。

三十：見同版《雜部經》第五集第四三七頁。事實上，佛說在任何人如見到四聖諦中任何一諦，即見余諦。四聖諦是互相關連的。

三十一：犍陀羅國及中國之福建兩地，各有佛修苦行之像，形容枯槁，脇骨盡露。但此為佛得道前厲修苦行之像。佛得道後，即嚴斥此種修持為非法。

三十二：見《阿毗達摩集論》第七頁。三十三：見巴利文學會版《中部經》第二集第一二一頁。

三十三：關于七覺支請參閱『修習：心智的培育』章。