淺談當代漢文大藏經整理傳譯之方向

內容摘要：「漢文大藏經」是一切漢文佛典的總稱，是漢語文佛典叢書大全，既包括漢文譯籍，也包括用漢語文寫成的種種佛教注疏和著述。⑴ 將這些既有的佛典搜尋和保藏起來，加以整理傳譯，對于佛教弘法事業、僧才培養和探索生存發展以及與時代相適應都具有極其重要的歷史現實意義。在「薪火相傳、眾緣和合、守正出新」的基本原則下，歷代高僧大德和學界互動，對漢文大藏經整理傳譯進行了不懈的努力，取得了巨大的成就，為佛教與中華傳統文化的融合和人類社會文明的進步提供了豐富的智慧資源。近些年各種版本的大藏經陸續被整理出版，在版本、文獻方面的意義較大，但在實用方面尚有缺欠。因此，對漢文大藏經全面進行錄入、句讀、校對，以適合現代人閱讀習慣的簡體字重新排版印行並加以提要、導讀尤為迫切，尤其是要酌情適度地對漢文大藏經進行白話傳譯。惟有如此，才能惠利眾生。

關鍵詞：漢文大藏經 整理 傳譯 方向

引言

佛教在其長期發展過程中，產生了大量的文獻，這些文獻統稱之為一切經、大藏經和三藏等等。釋迦牟尼所說的教義和所制定的戒律最初沒有文字記載，只是口頭相傳和靠記憶背誦。在他逝世後，弟子們感到這樣輾轉的口授，容易產生誤解和思想上的分歧，因而舉行了結集(集體會誦經律)，開始編集律藏和經藏，以後又編集論藏，並對三藏進行了注解。佛教向南北傳播後，很多地方的佛教徒使用當地的語言文字翻譯編寫了種種佛教典籍，並彙輯成經典，因之目前大藏經中有巴利語、漢語、藏語、蒙語、滿語、西夏語及日語等體系，另外，還有用梵語、吐火羅語、粟特語、于闐語、突厥語等譯寫的佛典。

一、漢文大藏經整理傳譯的基本情況及其特點

傳承文明的方式多種多樣，但主要依靠典籍。典籍的產生使得文明傳承可以跨越時間與空間。所以，在中國，修史造藏、整理典籍、抄書印書藏書，成為代代相承的傳統。⑵

佛教傳入中國兩千多年，經歷了從一個外來宗教轉變為中國傳統文化重要組成部分的過程。整理、研究大藏經，同樣也是發揚、傳承我國的傳統文化不可或缺的寶貴經驗。在我國佛教史上，歷朝歷代虔心收集、翻譯、整理、傳抄、供養、編修大藏經的佛教僧俗信徒不勝枚舉。正是因為有了他們的努力，各種形態的大藏經才得以形成和發展。根據現有資料，漢文大藏經大約有三種情況：唐代以前的寫本藏經；宋代以後的木版雕刻印本；漢文大藏經的排印版本。⑶

1、漢文大藏經的基本情況

我們知道，如何對待文化遺產歷來是有爭論的，問題是首先需要把散亂各地的文獻經書收集和保存下來。只有收集和保存下來，提供了解和研究的基礎，才有全面評價和討論如何運用的可能。⑷

佛教傳入中國內地以後的千余年間，僅藏經目錄即近50種之多，流傳至今尚有20余種，收錄的經籍數量不等。各個時代編纂的大藏經，形式和內容互有不同。除房山石經外，宋代以前的基本上都是卷軸裝幀的書寫本。北宋開寶(968~975)年間，第一部木版雕印的大藏經問世後，歷元、明、清至民國，共出版過木雕版和排印本大藏經20種(一說21種)。

傳統大藏經雖然利于保存，但不便閱讀。就大藏經的整理而言，雖然有多種大藏版本被影印傳世，但依然有《崇寧藏》、《毗盧藏》、《資福藏》、《普寧藏》、《永樂南藏》等重要版本沒有影印公諸于世。我國歷代大藏經的多數已成文物，尤其是宋元版大藏經，它們不是已基本亡佚，如《開寶藏》、《契丹藏》；就是成了稀世的孤本、殘本；或是流落海外，如《趙城藏》就是世間僅存的孤本，《崇寧藏》、《毗盧藏》基本保存于日本；明清諸版大藏經國內雖有完整的印本存世，但數量很少，基本上是各大寺院的供品。上世紀初，日本佛教界首先發起並重編了《卍續藏》、《大正藏》，成為之後佛教界及學術界廣泛使用的版本。民國時期，還出版過鉛字排印的《頻伽藏》和《普慧藏》。以後，中國再沒有大規模的官方編纂漢文大藏經之舉。上世紀30年代，在西安的開元、臥龍兩寺發現了宋《磧砂藏》本，遂引發了我國佛教學術界整理和研究大藏經的熱潮。在之後的年代，上海的僧俗學者整理影印了《影印宋磧砂版大藏經》；在這一過程中，又在山西發現了《趙城藏》，並從中整理影印了《宋藏遺珍》，著名佛學家歐陽漸的弟子蔣唯心還發表了《金藏雕印始末考》一文。上世紀50年代，重編《中華藏》的計劃首先由台灣學者蔡運辰提出。1956年在台灣成立「修訂中華大藏經會」，1982年完成了台灣版《中華藏》。上世紀60年代初，大陸的佛學界也提出重編《中華藏》的計劃，呂澄先生為此編著了《新編漢文大藏經目錄》一書。但因之後的政治運動，這一計劃沒有付諸實施。

綜觀國內外刊印的各種版本大藏經，都有收錄不全、排印錯漏等缺點，都不是理想的版本。

2、漢文大藏經的傳譯

漢文大藏經是在佛教傳入我國後，經過長期的翻譯、撰著和編纂起來的佛教經、律、論匯集。流行于中國漢、蒙地區和朝鮮、日本、越南等國。我國佛典的翻譯最早是在東漢末年恒帝(147-167)、靈帝(168-189)時代，最早的譯者是西域來我國的僧人安世高和支婁迦讖。在南北魏晉時期隨著佛教的蓬勃發展，譯經事業也在更大規模上進行，翻譯的質量有所提高。在隋唐時期，佛經翻譯獲得了統治者的直接支持，由國家出面組織譯場進行，並建立了一套極為嚴格的翻譯制度，譯經順序分為宣讀梵文、證義、證文、審聽、筆授、綴文、參譯、刊定、潤文等九個階段，從而保證了譯文的質量。隋唐是我國譯經事業臻于鼎盛時期，但五代以後就開始衰落，北宋時，佛典的翻譯雖未中斷，但只在少數人或個別人中進行。在佛經傳譯的2000年漫長歷史過程中，我國翻譯了大量的佛教經典，培育了一大批翻譯家。據不完全的統計，現有佛經中可以確定為屬于翻譯印度次大陸各國的約1482部5702卷，除重譯本外，還有4400卷，其中小乘佛典約1400卷，大乘經、律、論約3000卷，約合梵文250萬頌。自後漢末至北宋末年(2-12世紀)，約1000年間直接參加翻譯的有150余人，其中有史書可尋，屬次大陸來華的僧侶、學者計71人。鳩摩羅什、真諦、玄奘和不空等稱為中國翻譯史上的「四大翻譯家」。

3、漢文大藏經的特點

漢文大藏經的特點如下：

第一、量多。在大部分印度原典都已失的今日，要理解印度佛教歷史，漢譯是最重要的資料。第二、僅就量上來說，後述的西藏大藏經幾乎也可媲美漢譯，藏譯始于八世紀後，但中國在五世紀已經翻譯了現今仍被廣為讀誦的經典；六、七世紀時，主要經典的漢譯皆已齊備。也就是說，漢譯最能反映印度佛教的全盛時期。第三、同樣的聖典有多種譯本。在印度即使是相同的典籍，也會隨著時代的變遷，而有改訂或增，也會有古籍資料的流失。含義保存了其新舊形態，所以可以追尋變化發展的軌跡。第四、因漢譯年代大體皆有正確的記載，所以可據此重構印度文獻史。但是，反過來說，漢譯數據也不是沒有它的缺點。因為中國文學與印度文學都有古老的歷史，有其各自的發展，所以將印度原典翻譯成漢語時，未必能忠實于原文。這種顧慮在鳩摩羅什的漢譯中非常周詳，玄奘以後的譯文較重視于原文，即使如此，為尊重漢文的成規與習慣，以使譯文易懂易讀，有時候也有重新編輯本文的痕跡。即使是現代要將他國語言翻譯成英文等，為尊重英文本身的表現形式，甚至要犧牲對原文的忠實性；即使從語法構造相近的法文、德文等譯成英文時，常常很難從英文去推定其原文。漢譯佛教聖典同樣也有此困難。將此視為缺點或許不太恰當，但從原典批判的立場來說，這確實是相當棘手的問題。因此，很難逐字來作梵漢對照。⑸

二、當代漢文大藏經整理傳譯方面做出的有益探索

1、新時代漢文大藏經的編撰

改革開放以後，國家委派時任世界宗教研究所所長任繼愈主持，調集了一批專家學者編纂《中華大藏經》。從1982年8月整理出版工程正式啟動，經過13年的苦干，160多人的努力，這部共收錄典籍1939種，約一億多字的大藏經，1994年底編纂完成，1997年由中華書局出齊全部106冊。這是新中國建國以來，佛教大藏經整理與研究的一項重大成就。《中華藏》憑現代印刷科技之便利，積13年孜孜校勘之苦功，使得它在寫本、刻本、近現代印刷本、數碼本這一漢文大藏經的發展序列中，位于近現代印刷本的最高端，從而在漢文大藏經發展史上，產生出一個新的品類，樹立起自己獨特的地位。

新時期大藏經的整理已不單單只是整理重印，當前，校點工作已成為關注的重點。2007年，我國第一部標點本大藏經––《新編大藏經》編纂出版工作正式拉開帷幕。作為目前國家最大的出版工程之一，據大藏經編委會估計，完成後的《新編大藏經》字數約3億，擬分300冊出版，預計五年內完成。來自全國各地的學者、高僧一百余人組成了編委會，力求通過全面的收集、比勘、標點、整理，統一版式，科學分類排列，並加以標點句讀，使之成為有史以來收編藏經種類最完備、版本權威、使用最便利的現代讀本。

2、大藏經電子數碼化

上世紀90年代之後，佛典電子化又成為世界性的潮流。1993年韓國海印寺主持了一項宏大的工程：《高麗藏》數字化全文本。這一項目于2000年5月完成，現已有光盤傳世。之後，我國台灣的佛教學者組成了「中華電子佛典協會(CBETA)」，啟動了電子版《大正藏》工程。目前，電子版《大正藏》光盤已在海內外廣泛流傳。我們正處在近現代印刷本時期與數碼化時期交替的過程中。電子化不僅能大大縮小大藏經貯存的空間，還將改變佛教大藏經的流通方式，從而加快了大藏經的普及與應用；研究者也可在計算機上閱讀經藏，並通過檢索手段迅速地獲取相關數據。當然，無論計算機技術如何發展，宗教信仰者實際證悟的修行生活體驗依然需要通過平靜地閱讀經藏獲得更多的提升，依靠指端敲擊鍵盤顯而易見不能完全替代，因為微妙的心靈感受必須靠一頁一頁讀誦經典才有可能得到。

三、漢文大藏經整理傳譯的時節因緣

佛經原出于古代，是用文言文譯寫的，佛教術語名目獨特，寓意深奧，這又給閱讀者帶來很大的困難。⑹ 因此，佛教在傳播過程中，佛經翻譯成為佛教傳播的重要因素。從文化傳播與交流的角度看，佛經翻譯不僅是一種簡單的符號轉換過程，而是將一種語言承載的文化信息用另一種語言轉換過來，從而推動文化的傳播、促進文化間的交流與融合。綜觀佛教在中國的發展歷史，可以清晰地看到佛教在中國漢地實施的文獻傳播方式是按照佛經漢譯→漢文經錄編撰→漢文大藏經刻印這一歷史進程進行傳播的，在這一歷史進程中三者之間彼此關聯，發揮著其特定的傳播功能，從而促進了佛教在中國漢地的成功傳播。在佛經漢譯過程中，佛教文獻的傳播主體創制了一套有效的精神文本，這種有效文本在符號表達、思維方式、當下利益上與受傳者保持親近，從而保證了傳教的成功。佛教在向中國漢地實施傳播的過程中，面對中國本土文化和語言差異的阻礙，為擴大自身在時間空間上的影響，妥善處理傳播中的各種社會關系，佛教選擇了依靠神異道術、依附中國本土文化、依附封建王權、重視與士大夫交往結納和以通俗簡易之道教化民眾的傳播策略。這些傳播策略是成功的，效果是顯著的，達到了其傳播佛教的目的。⑺這也直接影響著佛經翻譯的組織形式、翻譯的標準、策略、方法與技巧，從而使佛經翻譯在不同時期彰顯出不同的特點。

1、中國歷史的發展為漢文大藏經的傳譯提供了拓展的空間。

翻譯作為某個譯者的個體活動，其動機和影響具有偶然性和不確定性。但當某類翻譯活動成為具有一定的規模性和持續性的集體活動時，則必定有其深層的社會文化原因，同時也必定會對所在地區的社會、文化造成相當深度和廣度的影響，佛經翻譯亦是如此。佛經翻譯的產生與當時的社會背景有著密切的關系。西漢末年與東漢初期政治腐敗，各種自然災害接踵而至，人們渴望有一種精神力量來慰藉和解脫自己，從而為佛教的傳入與佛經翻譯提供了社會條件。東漢時期思想及文化的變化為佛經翻譯提供了客觀條件。「先秦諸子學說紛紛再興……中國的思想文化進入了一個多元、理論系統日漸續密的百家爭鳴的全新時代。」(方立天，2004)這種思想文化狀況既為佛經的翻譯與佛教的傳播留下了空間，也為佛教的發展創造了一種適宜的文化氛圍。

2、佛教的圓融思想為漢文大藏經的傳譯提供了必要的保證。

佛經翻譯之所以形成中國第一次翻譯高潮，不僅由于當時的客觀歷史條件影響，佛教的「圓融」思想也起著關鍵作用。「圓融」思想賦予了佛教特有的開放和包容的性質，因此佛教傳入中土之初，在保持自己特性的前提下，即能與中國傳統的各家學說互相交流，對儒、道之學采取順應、融會的態度，效仿其淑世化民的正面社會作用。佛教五戒融會儒家之五常，借道家之用語翻譯佛典，「增加及融合了同期中國思想的主流。」(許里和，1998)從而使佛教與中國本土文化渾然一體，為自己不失時機地進入中國文化圈提供了一個必不可少的前提，也為自己的譯文找到了接受者。

由于中國傳統文化「和合」的精神本身與佛教的思想極具相似性和相通性。因此在佛教傳入中國的過程中與本土文化相融互攝、相得益彰，促進和完善了中華文明。由于佛經翻譯采取了讓中國人容易理解、便于接受的形式，在一定程度上促進了佛教與中國文化相互融合的歷史進程，從而使佛教最終成為中國文化不可分割的一部分，奠定了中國傳統文化「儒、釋、道」三家和諧並立的局面。因而，在佛經翻譯和佛教發展的過程中，佛教與中國傳統文化始終處于相互借鑑、相互補益的良性循環關系中。

3、本土信仰需求為漢文大藏經的傳譯提出了明確的取向。

佛教在中國初傳時有一個依附中國傳統文化的階段，這一策略必然深刻影響到以傳播佛教為目的的佛經翻譯。為了有利于佛教傳播，佛經翻譯必須考慮到中國讀者和廣大信眾的實際需求層面的理解水平和接受能力，于是調適便成為佛經翻譯的主要策略。與佛經翻譯初期的歸化策略相適應，在佛經翻譯的發生期，譯音多采用格義、比附等翻譯方法，借用儒家、道家的術語來表達譯文，從而使更多的中國人理解、接受佛教思想。

成功的翻譯就是一次成功的文化傳播，佛經翻譯一開始並非是一種單純的文本轉換活動，而是著眼于傳播。它是「一種目的性行為，但是這種『目的』並不完全取決于譯者個人，因為譯者並不享有完全的自由，他們也要受到主體文化目的的制約。」(張春柏，2005)它的組織形式、方法、技巧、原則和標準等，都在隨著中國本土文化和各種文本外因素的發展變化而變化。

從唐朝開始，著名的翻譯大師玄奘所運用的翻譯技巧有補充法、省略法、分合法等，幾乎囊括了現當代常用的各種翻譯技巧，從而使譯文達到了內容與形式的高度統一。與中國傳統文化水乳交融的高水平佛經翻譯，使越來越多的中國人在不知不覺中便接納了佛教及其教化思想。從譯者隊伍來看，佛經翻譯始終向著更加成熟、完善合理的體系發展。在佛經翻譯的初期，其組織形式為私譯，譯者多為外來僧人，翻譯活動也以他們為主。從佛經翻譯發展期到隋唐的成熟期，越來越多的佛教徒西行求法，精通梵漢雙語的人也越來越多，佛經翻譯的組織形式轉為官譯，譯場內部分工很細，這種翻譯組織形式至今仍影響著當代的翻譯活動。

4、佛教自身成長為漢文大藏經的傳譯提出了緊迫的時代命題。

佛教的自我繁衍、自我整合、自我更新、自我再生的機體功能，注定了佛教在內外因緣變異的逼迫下，必然會自我調節、適應社會。佛教在中國的存在形式，就是本土化或中國化。因緣和合，如何弘揚佛教的優良傳統，更好地為構建和諧世界發揮積極作用，實現「弘揚正法，化育眾生」，這是值得我們深入探討的重要課題。

我們以為，當代的首要任務就是佛教經典現代化，即運用現代語言對佛教哲學范疇做出當代人易于聽懂看懂的表述；對佛教哲學范疇進行新的詮釋，包括推導出合乎邏輯的引申義；結合社會實際問題，有針對性地闡發范疇涵義；闡揚范疇中所包含的真理因素、智慧成分、合乎社會發展的內容，即闡發范疇中所包含的積極的理論思維成果；提出符合客觀實際、適應時代需要的新范疇。

四、當代漢文大藏經整理傳譯有待進一步重視的幾個問題

1、在有關漢文大藏經的研究方面，我們應該加強對漢文大藏經在新時期的編撰和大藏經數碼化等方面的探討。

近些年各種版本的大藏經陸續被整理出版，是前所未有的好現象。但是，絕大部分是古本佛經的翻印。古本佛經對于學界和教界而言，在版本、文獻上的意義非常大，但是，在實用價值上，就差了很多。要編出一部既能滿足佛教信奉者供奉詠誦的需要，又要供全國各界人士用來閱讀、研究的可信的文獻資料，就要超越古人以某學派、宗派為尊的宗派成見，要盡力避免已出版的十幾種大藏經的印刷造成的差錯，還要吸取過去已有佛教大藏經的特點，不抱成見，亦不盲目崇古，使其成為一部符合時代要求、反映時代面貌的佛教全書。⑻ 因此，大藏經的整理工作應該從如下幾個層面增強其實用性：

(1)、對于重要的大藏經要進行錄入、句讀、校對，以適合現代人閱讀的簡體字重新排版印行。目前，李家振先生、李富華先生組織對《趙城金藏》進行校對，工作進展非常有效果。據悉，中國書店不久即將推出《乾隆大藏經》排錄本，河北佛協不久前推出《淨土藏》排錄本，即將推出《禪宗全書》排錄本。這些都是值得褒揚的。

(2)、對于所有的大藏經典要進行提要和導讀。為了便于當代人使用，對所有佛經進行提要和導讀，顯得非常必要。目前，上海古籍推出的陳士強《大藏經總目提要》，只完成了三藏之中經的部分，而且是依據《大正藏》的基礎目錄進行的，沒有涵蓋所有的經。因此，還有很長的道路要走。

(3)、要盡快地對所有的漢文經典進行有序性地白話傳譯。漢譯佛典儘管非常重要，但是其歷來沒有受到人們應有的重視。過去的學者中很少有人讀佛典，而研究佛教的學者則認為：漢譯佛典不僅難懂，而且同梵語、巴利語佛典相比只不過是二手數據而已。但是，思想必須通過語言表現，通過語言流傳，語言是思想的載體，思想並不能脫離表現它的語言，而是存在于表現它的語言之中。不正確地捕捉語言，便不可能正確地理解思想。所以，對所有的漢文大藏經適時進行有序性地白話傳譯將有助于正確的闡述和理解佛教思想。

2、我們對于當代漢文大藏經整理傳譯的一些實操性建議

正確地讀懂漢譯佛典是佛教信仰者和研究佛教的學者不可缺少的基本功。但是，漢譯佛典中出現的特殊的，或是口語的詞彙、語法在漢語辭典、語法書中及少能查找到，這就加大了正確讀解漢譯佛典的難度。從中國傳統文化比較學角度研究漢譯佛典語言的另一個難題就是其解釋往往停留在佛典以外的文獻中相類似的用法的比較，沒有充分表明漢譯佛典的特徵。而且古譯佛經一般信眾很難讀懂，如果不參考梵本或者是巴利語、藏語的經典的話，不僅不能理解，而且可能會誤解原意。

鑑于上述原因，我們對于當今時代漢文大藏經的整理和傳譯有如下實操性建議：

(1)收集所有漢文大藏經版本，包括已經出版和未經出版的。進行電子化保護和編目。未出版的珍貴佛經有很多，如山西崇善寺珍藏的崇寧藏、應縣木塔收藏的遼藏等等，需要逐一做工作，分別保護。

(2)將所有經典按照大藏經目錄體系和刊刻時代進行統一性編目，重新做出一部涵蓋所有大藏經的《新編一切經》(電子版)。

(3)對于重複收入的經典進行版本的校勘和比較，選出最優的本子，組織國內能夠從事佛經白話傳譯工作的人才，進行白話傳譯。其余版本存目。

總之，中國佛教的典籍文獻極為豐富浩瀚，其歷史發展極為錯綜複雜。近代國內外學者從各方面對佛教進行考察和研究，著書立說，成果累累，難以數計。⑼ 對這些遺產，或是化腐朽為神奇，或變瑰寶為腐朽，全在今人的運用。我們的態度應該是腳踏現實，承接歷史，建設現在，開辟未來。⑽ 所以，當代漢文大藏經整理傳譯的歷史使命已經擺在了我們面前，惟有追慕前賢，承惠開來。我們堅信：即使佛教史與文獻研究事實上很有成就，這樣也不表示能夠虔誠信仰和實踐。所以，我們必須得從龐大的經典中睜大眼睛找到佛教的真髓才對。⑾ 路雖長，靠我們自己走；問題複雜，靠我們自己群體解決，我們的路子會越來越廣，前途光明無限⑿。

附注：

(1)、李富華、何梅著 《漢文佛教大藏經研究》 宗教文化出版社 2003年12月 序 杜繼文

(2)、方廣錩 主編 《藏外佛教文獻 第二輯》中國人民大學出版社 2008年7月 首卷語

(3)、李森 《中華大藏經總目》 《中華大藏經》編輯局編 中華書局出版發行 2004年1月

(4)、李富華 何梅著 《漢文佛教大藏經研究》 宗教文化出版社 2003年12月 序 杜繼文

(5)、渡辺照宏 著 鍾文秀、釋慈一譯 《佛教經典常談》 東大圖書公司2002年8月

(6)、陳士強 著 《大藏經總目提要 文史藏(一)》上海古籍出版社 2008年4月

(7)、陳文英 著 《中國古代漢傳佛教傳播史論》天津古籍出版社 2007年1月

(8)、李森 《中華大藏經總目》 《中華大藏經》編輯局編 中華書局出版發行 2004年1月

(9)、蘇古編選 《江蘇古籍序跋與書評》 江蘇古籍出版社 2000年9月《佛教常識問答》後記 趙樸初

(10)李富華、何梅著 《漢文佛教大藏經研究》 宗教文化出版社 2003年12月 序 杜繼文

(11)、李森 《中華大藏經總目》 《中華大藏經》編輯局編 中華書局出版發行 2004年1月

(12)、蘇古編選 《江蘇古籍序跋與書評》 江蘇古籍出版社 2000年9月

《中國國家圖書館藏敦煌遺書》序任繼愈

參考書目

1、《漢唐佛教思想論集》 任繼愈 著 人民出版社 1998-05-01

2、《二十二種大藏經通檢》 童瑋 編 中華書局 1997-7-1

3、《藏外佛教文獻 第八輯》 方廣錩 主編 宗教文化出版社 2003年06月

4、《佛經版本(插圖珍藏本)》 李際寧 著 鳳凰出版社(原江蘇古籍出版社) 2002年12月

5、《江蘇古籍序跋與書評》 蘇古 編選 鳳凰出版社(原江蘇古籍出版社)2000年09月

6、《中華大藏經總目(精)》 中華書局 2004年01月

7、《芸窗筆記》 衛水山 著 中華書局 2004年06月

8.《巴蜀佛教碑文集成》 龍顯昭 主編 巴蜀書社 2004年05月

9.《古典文獻及其利用》 楊琳 著 北京大學出版社 2004年08月

10.《20世紀中國學術大典：宗教學》 任繼愈主編，卓新平 執行主編 福建教育出版社 2002年09月

11.《古籍印本鑑定概說》 作者：陳正宏，梁穎 編 上海辭書出版社 2005年06月

12.《禪學研究(第四輯)》 賴永海 主編 鳳凰出版社(原江蘇古籍出版社) 2000年08月

13.《敦煌佛教經錄輯校(上下冊)》 方廣錩 輯校 鳳凰出版社(原江蘇古籍出版社)1997年08月

14.《中國古籍版刻圖志》熊小明 編著 湖北人民出版社 2007年01月

15.《漢文大藏經與朝鮮古代敘事文學》 李官福 著 民族出版社 2006年12月

16、《龍袍與袈裟(上下冊)》 羅文華 著 紫禁城出版社 2005年09月

17、《故宮博物院八十華誕暨國際清史學術研討會論文集》

故宮博物館、國家清史編纂委員會編 紫禁城出版社2006年11月

18、《中國宮廷御覽圖書》 向斯 著 紫禁城出版社 2005年10月

19、《佛教大藏經研究論稿》 李際寧著 宗教文化出版社 2007年08月

20、《儒藏》 《儒藏》編纂中心編 北京大學出版社 2008年04月

21、《漢傳佛教概論》 李尚全 著 東方出版中心 2008年01月

22、《聖入無分別總持經：對勘與研究2》 談錫永、沈衛榮、邵頌雄著譯 中國藏學出版社 2007年11月

23、《藏文〈大藏經〉概論》 扎呷編著 青海人民出版社 2008年03月

24、《三聯生活周刊》(2008.4.28)總期號：477

25、《中國古代漢傳佛教傳播史論》 陳文英 著 2007年08月

26、《藏外佛教文獻》 方廣錩主編 中國人民大學出版社 2008年07月

27、《佛經音義研究(首屆佛經音義研究國際學術研討會論文集)》徐時儀，陳五云，梁曉虹 編 上海古籍出版社 2006年07月

28、《漢藏佛經翻譯比較研究》 侃本著 中國藏學出版社 2008年04月

29、《民族研究文匯》 郝時遠主編 社會科學文獻出版社 2009年01月

30、《守正出新》 中華書局編輯部 編 中華書局 2008年12月

Pass the Flame, Adhere to the Truth and Innovate Upon the Ways of Exegeting Buddhist Scriptures Under a Synergy of Conditions：

On the Direction of the Compilation, Propagation and Translation of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka in Modern TimesRev. Yanzang

Abstract: The Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text) is the whole collection of all Chinese Buddhist scriptures and the comprehensive series of Buddhist sutras written in Chinese. It covers a number of Chinese translation texts and a variety of commentaries and works about Buddhism in Chinese.[1]Searching these existing Buddhist scriptures and properly preserving them, in addition, editing and translating these Buddhist sutras will be historically and practically significant for propagating Buddhist teachings, cultivating Buddhist intellectuals and exploring the development as well as the adaptation of Buddhism with our society and times. Adhering to the principle of 「pass the flame, adhere to the truth and innovate upon the ways of exegeting Buddhist scriptures under a synergy of conditions」, the past and present generations of eminent Buddhist monks interacted with scholars from the academic communities, they made untiring efforts to edit and translate the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text). They have achieved a great success and provided a vast resource of wisdom for the reconciliation and unification of Buddhism and Chinese traditional culture(s) as well as the development of human civilization. In recent years, a number of different editions of the Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-text) have been published and these works have made a considerable contribution to the studies of Buddhist scriptures』 editions and classics, but may be deficient in practical level. Thus, it is extremely urgent for us to process, punctuate and proofread the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text) in order to facilitate the reading of these documents by modern people who are used to reading simplified Chinese characters. It is particularly important for us to make a summarization, guided reading and a proper vernacular translation of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text) so that the people will benefit from our efforts.

Key words: the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text) compilation and edition propagation and translation direction

Foreword

In its long history of development, Buddhism has witnessed a massive compilation of classics and literatures, these works are called the Tripitaka (Triple-Text). At first, there was no written record of Sakyamuni』s teachings and disciplines which he made and taught, but only oral dictation and memorization. When Sakyamuni achieved nirvana, his disciples noticed that if they only preserved oral tradition it would be easy to misunderstand their Master』s teachings and thoughts so that they held a Samgiti (Buddhist Council) and began to compile Vinaya-pitaka (The Basket of Disciplines) and Sutta-pitaka (The Basket of Buddha』s discourses), later they compiled Abhidamma-pitaka (The Basket of commentary) and wrote commentaries on the Tripitaka (Three baskets). After the spread of Buddhism in the north and south, a number of Buddhists from different locations utilized their own local languages to translate and edit a variety of Buddhist sutras and compiled them together. Currently, the Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text) is edited in Pali, Chinese, Tibetan, Mongolian, Manchu, Tangut (also Xixia or Hsi-Hsia), and Japanese, etc. in addition, there are some Buddhist scriptures translated and written in Sanskrit, Tocharian or Tokharian, the Sogdian language, Khotan, and Turki.

Ⅰ. Some basic information and characteristics about the compilation, propagation, and translation of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text)

Though there are various ways of passing on civilization, this process relies mainly on preserving the classics. The birth of the classics enables the inheritance of civilization to transcend space and time. Hence, it is a tradition for Chinese people to record the history and compile the (Buddhist, Confucian, Taoist, etc.) classics, edit them, compile, copy and print them in books. This tradition was handed down from generation to generation.[2]More than two thousand years have been passed since Buddhism first entered into China, it has undergone a process by which a foreign religion was transformed and became an important part of Chinese traditional culture(s). Editing and researching the Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text) is also an indispensable and valuable experience to promote and inherit Chinese traditional culture. In the history of Chinese Buddhism, there were numerous Buddhist monks and lay practitioners of each dynasty and generation who piously collected, translated, edited, copied 供養 and compiled the Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text). Because of their efforts, different editions of the Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text) were formed and developed. According to the existing statistics, the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text) can be divided into three categories: the hand-written sutras before the Tang Dynasty, the xylographic (wood-block printing) Tripitaka after the Song Dynasty, and the typographic edition of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text).[3]

1. Some background information about the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text)As we know, it is an arguable question about how to treat our cultural heritage and legacies, the problem is that we should first collect the classics and writings scattered in different places and then preserve them. Only by doing this can we have a solid basis for the study and research of those classics and writings, and can we judge those classics and writings in a comprehensive way and discuss the possibilities of how to use them.[4]During the past years when Buddhism first entered in mainland China, there were more than fifty indexes of the Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text), around twenty still exist and each of them contains different volumes of scriptures. The format and content of the Tripitaka edited in each dynasty are varied. Except those stone-carved scriptures in Fangshan, (Beijing), the sutras contained in the Tripitaka which were edited before the Song Dynasty were written by hand and ornamented with scrolls. During the reign of Kaibao開寶(968~975)in the Northern Song Dynasty, the first xylographic (wood-block printing) Tripitaka appeared, after the span of the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties and the republic of China, more than twenty (others say twenty-one) editions of xylographic (wood-block printing) and typographic Buddhist Tripitaka (Triple-Text) have been published.

Though the traditional Tripitaka is favorable to preserve, it may not be convenient for people of modern times to read. And in terms of the compilation of the Tripitaka, while many photocopied editions are still in circulation, there are other important editions like: 《崇寧藏》the Chongningzang、《毗盧藏》the Piluzang、《資福藏》 the Zifuzang、《普寧藏》 the Puningzang、《永樂南藏》the Yongle Nanzang, etc have not been photocopied and opened to the public. Most editions of the Tripitaka of the past generations are now cultural relics, especially those of the Song and Yuan dynasties. Some are extinct, (for example: 《開寶藏》 the Kaibaozang、《契丹藏》 the Qidanzang), some are rare unique and fragmentary editions (《趙城藏》the Zhaochengzang is the only unique edition in the world.), and the rest are lost and kept overseas, (《崇寧藏》the Chongningzang、《毗盧藏》the Piluzang are kept in Japan.) While the unabridged printed editions of Tripitaka of Ming and Qing dynasties are preserved well in mainland China, the circulation is quite limited and these editions of Tripitaka are monastic offerings/treasures of the Buddhist communities. In the beginning of the twentieth century, Japanese Buddhist monks initiated a campaign to re-edit the 《萬字續藏》the Wangzi Xuzang and the《大正藏》the Taisho Tripitaka, these two editions were frequently used among the Buddhist and academic communities. During the republic of China, 《頻伽藏》the Pinjiazang and《普慧藏》the Puhuizang ( printed in a movable type and arranged in a lead tablets) have been published. From that time on, China has not witnessed the large-scale official activities of compiling the Tripitaka. In the 1930s, the 《磧砂藏》the Qishazang of the Song dynasty was discovered at the 開元Kaiyuan and 臥龍 Wolong temple in Xian city, this discovery aroused Chinese Buddhist scholars』 enthusiasm in compiling and researching the Tripitaka. In the following years, 《影印宋磧砂版大藏經》(Photocopied edition of the Qishazang of the Song dynasty) was published by Shanghai Buddhist monks and lay practitioners. Meanwhile, 《趙城藏》the Zhaochengzang was discovered in Shanxi province and 《宋藏遺珍》 the Songzang Yizhen was edited and photocopied from 《趙城藏》the Zhaochengzang. 蔣唯心 Jiang Weixin, a disciple of the renowned Buddhist scholar 歐陽漸 Ou Yangjian, issued an article entitled 《金藏雕印始末考》(on the process of the printing of the Jinzang.) In the 1950s, a project of re-editing 《中華藏》 the Chinese Tripitaka was first put forward by a scholar named 蔡運辰Cai Yunchen from Taiwan island. In 1956, the committee of compiling and editing the Chinese Tripitaka was established in Taiwan and 26 years later (1982) the Taiwanese edition of the Chinese Tripitaka was published. In the beginning of the 1960s, Buddhist monks from mainland China also proposed a project of re-editing the Chinese Tripitaka and Mr. Lu Cheng 呂澄wrote a book entitled 《新編漢文大藏經目錄》(The index of the new edition of the Chinese Tripitaka), but the Cultural Revolution occurred and this project was not carried out.

After making a comprehensive observation on different editions of the Tripitaka from both home and abroad, one can notice that all these editions have some flaws such as: fragmentary collection, disarranging typesetting, etc and are not ideal editions.

2. The propagation and translation of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka

The Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka is a whole collection of Sutta-pitaka (The Basket of Buddha』s discourses), Vinaya-pitaka (The Basket of Disciplines) and Abhidamma-pitaka (The Basket of commentary) which experienced a long-term process of translation, compilation and composition after Buddhism was first entered into China. It is largely circulated among the Chinese Han ethnic group, Mongolia, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, etc. The earliest Buddhist scriptures translation activity was taken during the reign of恒帝Emperor Heng (147-167) and 靈帝(168-189) Emperor Ling of the late Han dynasty and the pioneering translators were安息國的安世高An Shigao of Parthia and 月支國的支婁迦讖Lokasema of Kusana who left their home countries to China. The following dynasties (Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties) witnessed a golden age of the development of Chinese Buddhism and the translation project took place on a large-scale and the quality of the translation works improved. In the dynasties of Sui and Tang, the translation project was supported by the ruling class and the imperial state organized an official譯場 Yichang (a place where Buddhist scriptures were translated) and a strict set of rules and regulations of translation was established. The sequences of a translation work were arranged in nine steps: reading the Sanskrit text, meaning research, textual research, examining the sound, oral instruction, composing the Chinese, consulting other translations, 刊定、polishing the final work, in this way, the quality of a translation work was guaranteed. The Sui and Tang dynasties witnessed a golden age in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but this situation declined in the following dynasties. In the Northern Song dynasty, though the Buddhist scriptures translation project was not interrupted, only a few groups or individuals engaged in this work. In its two thousand years, a massive volume of Buddhist scriptures were translated and a large number of translators were trained. According to statistics, the living Buddhist scriptures which were certainly translated from countries of the Indian subcontinent are around 1482 scriptures, (5702 volumes) Besides those re-translated texts, there are 4400 volumes, among these 1400 volumes belonged to Theravada, 3000 volumes to Vinaya-pitaka, Sutta-pitaka and Abhidamma-pitaka which are Mahayana』s, these scriptures are equal to 2.5 million Sanskrit odes. From the late Han dynasty to the end of the Northern Song dynasty (2—12 century), around 150 people directly participated in this translation project during the past 1000 years.

Among these translators, there were 71 Buddhist monks and scholars who came from the Indian subcontinent, 鳩摩羅什Kumarajiva, 真諦Paramattha, 玄奘Xuanzang and 不空Amoghavajra were regarded as 「the four giants」 in the history of Chinese translation.

3. The Characteristics of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka

First: its massiveness. Since most of the original Indian Buddhist scriptures are lost and in order to understand the history of the Indian Buddhism, the Chinese translation works are the most important references. Second: in terms of its quantity, the Tibetan Buddhist Tripitaka is no less than the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka. Though the Chinese Buddhist scriptures were translated into Tibetan language in the eighth century, today』s most read and recited scriptures were translated in the fifth century. In the sixth and seventh century, the project of translating the main Buddhist scriptures into Chinese was done. That is to say, the Chinese translation works can best reflect the golden age of Indian Buddhism. Third: there are different translated versions of the same sutra. Though the same Buddhist scripture in India might change with the passing of time and be re-edited or added to, it is likely that some of the ancient classics were lost. The content of these remaining classics witnessed the old and new forms, so the traces of change can be searched out. Fourth: because there is a fairly accurate record f Chinese translation projects, the history of Indian classics can be re-constructed. However, that does not mean that there are no flaws in the Chinese translated scriptures, for the simple reason that both the history of Chinese and Indian classics are very long and its development is varied. Thus, the Chinese translation works might be faithful to their original Indian texts. This concern was fully considered in鳩摩羅什Kumarajiva』s Chinese translated scriptures, other works which were done after玄奘Xuanzang paid more attention to the fidelity of their original texts. Even though, in order to conform to the Chinese writing and reading practice and make the translated scriptures easier for people to read and understand, sometimes traces of re-editing the original texts can be found. Like in modern times, when people try to translate other languages into English, he / she might sacrifice the fidelity to the original texts for the proper expression of the English. Even when people translate from foreign languages that are similar to English, (like French and German), it is difficult to trace the original texts from the English translation works. This situation is also applicable to the Chinese Buddhist translated scriptures. It might not proper to regard this as a flaw, but from the perspective of textual criticism, it is really a thorny issue. For it is difficult to translate Sanskrit into Chinese literally.[5]

Ⅱ. Some significant explorations in the compilation, propagation and translation of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka in modern times

1. The compilation of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka in modern times

After 1978, Mr. 任繼愈Ren Jiyu, the director of the institute of world religions, was appointed to organize a group of scholars to edit 《中華大藏經》 the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka. This compiling and editing project officially began on August 1982, after 13 years』 and more than 160 scholars』 assiduous endeavors, this colossal project which contains 1939 different Buddhist scriptures and around 100 million Chinese characters was finished in the end of 1994 and all 106 volumes were published by 中華書局 Zhonghua Book Company in 1997. This was a great achievement in compiling and researching the Buddhist Tripitaka after the founding of the people』s republic of China in 1949. 《中華大藏經》 the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka is the best among all writing, block-print, contemporary and digital editions because it used modern printing technology and resulted from 13 years』 of assiduous textual cleanup efforts. The history of the development of Chinese Buddhist scriptures witnessed a new edition and this edition has established its own unique status.

The compilation of Buddhist Tripitaka in modern times is not simply a task of re-printing. Currently, key attention has been placed on textual cleanup. In the year of 2007, the project of compilation and publishing the first edition of the Buddhist Tripitaka with punctuation was officially began. As one of the largest publishing projects in China, it is estimated by the members of the compiling committee of the Buddhist Tripitaka that the new edition of the Buddhist Tripitaka will contain around 300 million Chinese characters and its 300 volumes will be published in 5 years. More than 100 renowned Buddhist scholars and monks around China constitute the compiling committee and they hope this new edition will become the most comprehensive in collections, most authoritative in editions and most convenient in reading by adopting a method of comprehensive collection, comparison, punctuation, compilation, unification of format and a scientific arrangement.

2. The digitalization of the Buddhist Tripitaka

After the 1990s, the digitalization of Buddhist scriptures became a world wide trend. In 1993, a huge project—the digitalization of 《高麗藏》the Korean Tripitaka—was organized by海印寺Haeinsa Temple in South Korea. This project was finished on May 2000 and the CD was also made available. Later, Buddhist scholars from the Island of Taiwan organized中華電子佛典協會the CBETA (Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association) and began to create electronic version of 《大正藏》the Taisho Tripitaka which is widely circulated today. We are in the transition process between contemporary printing and the digital period. The digitalization of the Buddhist Tripitaka not only saves space but also will change the mode of circulation. Thus it will facilitate the popularization and application of the Buddhist Tripitaka. Modern scholars can use the computer to read the Buddhist scriptures and quickly obtain related information by applying the searching method. However, no matter how developed the computer technology is, the religious practitioners』 true self-cultivation experience must still be advanced by reading the Buddhist scriptures in a tranquil way. The traditional method of reading can not be replaced by typing on the keyboard because the delicate feelings of mind and soul need to be attained by reading and reciting the Buddhist sutras one page after another.

Ⅲ. The right time and good karma for the compilation, propagation and translation of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka

Buddhist sutras were written in classical languages in ancient times. The terminologies and meaning of these scriptures are very particular and deep. This creates a big challenge for readers of modern times.[6] Therefore, the work of translating is an important element for the dissemination of Buddhism. From the perspective of cultural communication and propagation, the translation of Buddhist scriptures is not simply a process of symbol conversion; it transforms one particular linguistic symbol into another linguistic symbol which bears specific cultural information. Thus, the communication and dissemination of different cultures can be promoted. Observing the history of Buddhism in China, one can clearly notice that the dissemination of Buddhist classics follows this particular historical pattern: Chinese translation of Buddhist sutras—compilation of Chinese Buddhist scriptures and indexes––printing of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka. During this process, these three parts were interrelated together and each one played a particular role and successfully promoted the dissemination of Buddhism in China. In the course of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, the early Buddhist monks and translators created a series of incredibly efficacious spiritual texts, these texts established points of contact with the recipient Chinese culture(s) in symbolic expression and thought patterns, and also appealed to many different ideologies and religious groups in different time periods, thus, guaranteeing the success of Buddhism in China.

During this process of the dissemination of Buddhism in China, Buddhism faced the obstacles of differences in culture(s) and language(s). In order to promote and enhance its influence, the early Buddhist monks and translators adopted a strategy which allows Buddhism to depend on miraculous Taoist arts, Chinese indigenous culture(s) and the imperial ruling class. They also took great care to associate Buddhism with the Chinese scholar-bureaucrat and simplified its teachings so that the common people could easily understand it. This strategy was successful and Buddhism became prominent and the goal of propagating Buddhism was achieved.[7] This strategy had a direct influence on the organizing principles, norms and standards, methods and skills used in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and caused those translated works to exhibit distinct characteristics in different times.

1. The development of Chinese history has provided an expansive space for the course of the propagation and translation of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka

If translation is merely a certain translator』s individual activity, his / her motivation and influence may cause his / her translation to exhibit chanciness and uncertainty. But when this individual activity has become a large-scale and continuous collective activity, deep social and cultural factors control the process of translation. Meanwhile, this collective translation activity must produce a deep and wide influence upon the host culture and society; this is the exact situation for Buddhism in China. The beginnings of Buddhist-scripture-translation had a close connection with the social context of one specific period. During the late Western Han and the early Eastern Han dynasties, the government was unstable and corrupted, a variety of natural disasters happened one after another, people at that time were eager to seek a spiritual power to comfort and liberate themselves from all kinds of suffering. This created and provided a favorable social condition for the import of Buddhism and the Buddhist scripture translation project. The transformation of different thoughts and culture(s) also provided an objective condition. 「Different schools of thoughts in pre-Qin dynasty were revived……Chinese thoughts and culture(s) ushered a brand new era in which a hundred schools of thoughts were striving together and characterized as a multi-cultural and an increasingly sophisticated theory system. (方立天 Fang Litian，2004)This situation not only left a space for the dissemination and translation of Buddhist scriptures, but also created a favorable cultural atmosphere for the development of Buddhism.

2. The Buddhist concept of 「perfect syncretism」 has provided necessary grounds for the course of the propagation and translation of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka

In addition to the objective historical conditions at that time, another reason for the massive wave of translation was the Buddhist philosophy of 「perfect syncretism」. The concept of 「perfect syncretism」 makes Buddhism very open and tolerant to other ideas. When Buddhism first entered into China, under the precondition of preserving its uniqueness, it communicated with different Chinese traditional schools of thoughts. It adopted an adaptive and incorporative attitude towards Confucianism and Taoism and harnessed their abilities to positively influence society and teach the people. For example, Buddhism adapted the Confucian concept of 「五常Wuchang」 (The five constant virtues：仁benevolence, 義loyalty, 禮etiquette or ritual, 智wisdom, 信trust) into its concept of 「五戒Wujie」 (不殺生abstinence from taking life, 不偷盜from stealing, 不邪淫from illicit sexual conduct,不妄語from false speech and 不飲酒from intoxicants) and also borrowed a number of Taoist terminologies to translate its own concepts. 「(Buddhism) added and incorporated the mainstream of Chinese thoughts at that time.」 (許里和，1998)Thus, Buddhism and Chinese indigenous culture(s) became one. It provided an indispensable precondition for itself to enter the Chinese cultural communities and found a host to accept its translation works.

Since the harmonious spirit of the Chinese traditional culture(s) is highly similar with Buddhist philosophy, Buddhism as it developed in China incorporated itself with the indigenous culture(s) and as a result Buddhism and Chinese culture(s) brought out the best in each other, thus Chinese civilization was advanced and perfected. Because the early Buddhist monks and translators adopted a way which allows Chinese people to easily understand and accept its thoughts and teachings, they promoted the historical course of mutual incorporation between Buddhism and Chinese culture(s) to some extent and finally cause Buddhism to become an indispensable part of Chinese culture(s). Harmonious co-existence of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism was established. Therefore, during the process of the Buddhist scripture translation, Buddhism and Chinese traditional culture(s) were always in a benign circulation of mutual learning and complementing.

3. The demands of indigenous belief have set the specific working direction for the project of propagating and translating the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka

In the pioneering stage, Buddhism experienced a time when it attached itself with Chinese traditional culture(s), this strategy has deeply influenced the translation project of Buddhist scriptures which aimed at the propagation of Buddhism in China. In order to facilitate the dissemination of Buddhism, the early Buddhist monks and translators had to consider what Chinese readers』 and believers』 could understand and accept especially on a practical level. Thus, adaptation became the main strategy for the translation project of Buddhist scriptures. In accordance with the initial strategy of accepting the Chinese indigenous culture(s) and changing with them, in the following years, the Buddhist monks and translators adopted a phonetic translation which includes 格義Geyi and 比附 Bifu, they borrowed Confucian and Taoist terminologies in their Buddhist translation works so that more Chinese people could understand and accept the Buddhist teachings.

A successful translation means a successful cultural propagation, from the beginning, the project of translating the Buddhist scriptures was not simply one of text conversion, but was aimed at the dissemination of Buddhism in China. It was 「an activity with a purpose, but this 『purpose』 was not fully determined by the translators, because the translators did not enjoy absolute freedom, they were subject to the host culture.」 (張春柏，2005)The whole project its organizing formats, ways, skills, principles and standards, had to be adjusted to Chinese indigenous culture(s) and other contextual elements.

From the Tang dynasty, the renowned translator 玄奘Xuanzang utilized some skills such as, supplementing, omitting, splitting and combining, etc which covered all different translation skilled employed in modern times. His translation works achieved a tight unity between content and form. These high quality Buddhist translations which were in complete harmony with Chinese traditional culture(s) caused a growing number of Chinese people to accept Buddhism and its teachings in an unconscious way. Observing the array of translators, the course of Buddhist scripture translation was always developing towards a more mature and sound track. In the initial stage, the organizing form was private and translators from foreign countries dominated the translation project. From the developing stage to the golden age of Buddhist scripture translation in the Sui and Tang dynasties, more and more Chinese Buddhist monks studied Buddhist doctrine in the Indian subcontinent and there were a growing number of people who mastered both Chinese and Sanskrit. The organizing form was changed from private to official and the division of work was very detailed and specific. This kind of translation form still has a great influence upon today』s translation activities.

4. The self-development of Buddhism has brought forward the pressing time theme for the propagation and translation of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka

Buddhism』s organic properties of self-propagation, self-adjustment, self-renovation, and self-regeneration destined it to change and adapt to society when faced with challenges from both inside and outside. The existing form of Buddhism in China resulted from conceptualization or localization. Though the time and karma are in complete harmony, we must still discern how to promote the good traditions of Buddhism so that they may play a positive role in constructing a harmonious world and so that Buddhism may achieve the goal of 「promoting the orthodox Dhamma, teaching and transforming the people.」 It is an important task worthy of deep discussion for us.

We believe our chief mission in the present age is to modernize the Buddhist scriptures. That is to say we should use the modern language to explain Buddhist philosophical concepts to facilitate modern people』s understanding. The new exegesis of Buddhist philosophical concepts includes: to reason some explications which conformed to logic, to illuminate the implications of Buddhist philosophical concepts in response to some practical problems of society, to advance the elements of truth and wisdom which are contained in Buddhist philosophical concepts, to promote the positive theoretical thinking system in accord with the content of social development, to bring forward new concepts which correspond to objective practice and adaptation to modern demands.

Ⅳ. Some questions must be paid attention to the compilation, propagation and translation of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka in modern times

1. Regarding the research of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka, we should strengthen the discussion about the compilation and digitalization of the Tripitaka in modern times.

A number of different versions of the Tripitaka have been compiled and published in recent years. It is a good phenomenon. However, most of them are re-printings of the ancient Buddhist scriptures. Though these ancient scriptures have a great significance in edition and literature for academic and Buddhist communities, they have less value on the practical level. In order to compile one ideal edition which can meet the Buddhist believers』 reading and reciting needs and can be used as a reliable research and reading resource for people from all circles, we should transcend the sectarian bias by which our predecessors have only upheld one certain school or sect and we also should avoid those printing mistakes contained in the existing published editions of the Tripitaka and learn the unique characteristics of the Tripitaka in the past dynasties, this requires us to not hold prejudice and blindly trust our forefathers. Only by taking these measures, can we achieve the compilation of a Buddhist encyclopedia which meet the requirements of the present age and reflects the spirit of modern times.[8] Thus, the compilation project of the Tripitaka should strengthen its practicability from the following aspects:

(1). We should process, punctuate and proofread the important editions of the Tripitaka and re-do the typesetting to fit modern people』s reading habits. Currently, Mr. 李家振Li Jiazhen and 李富華Li Fuhua are leading some experts to proofread 《趙城金藏》the Zhaochen Jinzang and their work has achieved great progress. It is reported that the new typesetting of《乾隆大藏經》the Qianlong Dazangjin will be published by 中國書店China Bookstore (Publishing Company) , the new typesetting of《淨土藏》the Jingtu zang was published by 河北佛協Hebei Buddhist Association not long ago and 《禪宗全書》the complete scriptures of Chan Buddhism will be published soon. All these efforts should be praised.

(2). It is extremely necessary to construct summaries and reading guides of all the Buddhist scriptures in order to facilitate modern people』s use. Currently, Mr. 陳士強Chen Shiqiang edited《大藏經總目提要》the catalogue and index of the Tripitaka and published by 上海古籍Shanghai Guji (Publishing House), but he only finished the section of the Sutta-pitaka (The Basket of Buddha』s discourses) and it was based on the basic catalog of the Tripitaka which did not cover the whole scriptures. Therefore, there is still a long way to go.

(3). It is extremely urgent to make a proper and systematic vernacular translation of the Buddhist scriptures written in classical Chinese. Though these translated Chinese Buddhist scriptures are important, they have not received much attention. In the past, few people read Buddhist scriptures. And Buddhist scholars claimed that not only were these scriptures difficult to understand but they were also merely secondary literatures compared with those written in Pali and Sanskrit. However, concepts must be expressed and handed down through a particular language, language is the vehicle of concepts and concepts can not divorce themselves from a particular language. They must indwell the language. Without a proper perception of language, it is impossible to understand the concepts correctly. Therefore, a proper and systematic vernacular translation of the Buddhist scriptures written in classical Chinese is very helpful to expatiate and understand the Buddhist concepts accurately.

2. Some of our practical and operational suggestions for the compilation, propagation and translation of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka in modern times

A correct understanding of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures is an indispensable and basic skill for Buddhist believers and researchers. But, there are a number of peculiar and special Buddhist grammatical constructions and terminologies which are not found in other Chinese works and are not adequately explained in current reference books. This makes reading and understanding the Chinese Buddhist scriptures more challenging. Another point of difficulty is the necessity of doing comparative studies of other Chinese literature because some of the translators』 explanations rest on similar uses contained in Chinese literature outside the Buddhist scriptures. These translators』 explanations can not be read as a pure one-to-one translation of the original Buddhist texts. Those ancient scriptures are difficult for general Buddhist believers to read, , since people might misunderstand and sometimes even distort the original meaning if they do not consult sutras written in Pali, Sanskrit and Tibetan languages.

Herein we brought forward some practical and operational suggestions for the compilation, propagation and translation of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka in modern times.

(1). Collect all editions of Tripitaka in Chinese, including those published and unpublished. And make an electronic version and catalogue of them. There are many precious Buddhist scriptures which have not been published, such as 崇寧藏the Chongning zang preserved in 崇善寺Chongshan temple in 山西Shanxi province, 遼藏the Liaozang collected in 應縣木塔Yinxian wooden pogoda, etc. These precious scriptures need to be protected and compiled one by one.

(2). Make a uniform catalogue of all Buddhist scriptures according to the index system and carving and printing age of the Tripitaka, re-compile 《新編一切經》a new edition of all Buddhist scriptures which can cover all different versions of the Tripitaka (electronic edition)

(3) Collate and compare the editions of those scriptures which appeared repeatedly, select the best one and organize some experts who are capable of translating it into vernacular language. Other editions of those scriptures are cataloged.

In Conclusion, the classics and literature of Chinese Buddhism are truly rich and the development of its history is quite complex. In recent years, both scholars from home and abroad have paid much attention in order to research Buddhism in all its different